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    # 燃氣輪機期末報告: 在模擬的渦輪葉片冷卻通道中的流動,其空間因增材製造方向的不同而具有不同的粗糙度 ###### tags: `academy` ## Abstract 由於重力作用在laser sintering process過程中產上的熔體區域上,上方與下方的增材表面已顯示出不同的粗糙度特徵。 > [laser sintering process](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ruvRijM7f50) > ![](https://i.imgur.com/NHKM9mZ.png) - 1、2: scaled, structured-light scans of the upskin and downskin surfaces of an Inconel 718 component which was created at a 45° angle to the printing surface. [1] - 3: similar to the Inconel 718 downskin surface, but a different scaling was used to provide larger roughness elements in the RIFT - Roughness dimensions($R_q/D_h$) 1. 0.0064(小) 2. 0.0156(中) 3. 0.0405(大) - friction coefficient - $10,000 < Re_{Dh} < 70,000$ 在不同的$R_{Dh}$值下,使用x-array熱膜風速儀表徵每個粗糙度組合的速度和湍流曲線(turbulence profiles) 然而,當粗糙表面相對時,在研究的雷諾數範圍內表面未達到完全湍流(complete turbulence)。內部變量分析的結果表明,粗糙表面函數$\Delta U^+$變得獨立於opposing wall的粗糙度condition,這提供了Townsend假說:「對於增材製造的渦輪葉片冷卻通道所所期望的相對粗糙度值成立」的證據。 ## Introduction - Additive Manufacturing: produce distinct roughness depend on surface geometry during printing because of gravity - present work: scaling the roughness on an AM internal cooling channel up to wind-tunnel size - essence of this investigation: test of Townsend's hypothesis - Townsend's hypothesis: when applied to boundary layers over roughness, implies that roughness information is not passed beyond the inner region where turbulent fluid motion contributes to fluid shear on the surface ## Experimental Methodology ### Surface Generation ![](https://i.imgur.com/meYEwZ2.png) ### Rough Surface Scaling ![](https://i.imgur.com/PYhrE7x.png) - Roughness ratio: $\times2.5$ - Real_x102 > Inco718_Downskin > Inco718_Upskin ### Roughness characteristic ![](https://i.imgur.com/eOGbG17.png) - $R_a$: the arithmetic mean(算術平均數) roughness height - $R_q$: the root-mean-square(均方根) roughness height - $Skw$: roughness height relative skewness distribution(相對偏度分布) - $Y'$: local surface elevation relative to the mean surface elevation(相對於平均表面高程的局部表面高程) #### Roughness Properties of each surface - Inco718_Downskin_$R_q$ $= 2.4 \times$Inco718_Upskin_$R_q$ - Real_x102_$R_q$ $= 2.6 \times$Inco718_Downskin_$R_q$ ![](https://i.imgur.com/wCbLuCA.png) ### Roughness Internal Flow Tunnel(RIFT) ![](https://i.imgur.com/IfBZ8ul.png) - Flow through tunnel: established using a small centrifugal fan controlled using a variable autotransformer(由可變自耦變壓器控制的小型離心風機) ![](https://i.imgur.com/BjbJ1Yp.png) - $Q$: volumetric flow rate - $A_{ts}$: area of the test section - $\Delta P_v$: gage pressure measured at the contraction exit - $C_o$: discharge coeffitient(放電係數)$ - friction factor variation was measured over $10,000 < Re_{Dh} < 70,000$ - surface roughness increase: limited $Re$(ex. Real_x102 + Inco718_Downskin : $50,000$) - low roughness case at $Re < 10,000$: cause uncertainty in measured friction factors to be as high as $10 \%$ ### Velocity and Turbulence Profile Measurements - velocity profile measured: 1249A-10, x-array hot-film anemometer probe, AN-1002 anemometry system - At each y-station in the profile: 300,000 samples were acquired simultaneously from each wire at a rate 50,000 samples/second - hot film probe - pros: robustness(穩健性), near roughness elements without damage - cons: sensitive of the probe to short timescale fluctuations is reduced - The Reynolds stress is attenuated(衰減的) by the hot-film wires ### Calibration(校正) and Uncertainty Analysis - Figure 4(a): mean streamwise velocity profiles based on an outer scaling of the flow ![](https://i.imgur.com/0zda7H3.png) - Figure 4(b): the profiles of Reynolds stress identifying the plateau region where Reynolds stress reaches a maximum value ![](https://i.imgur.com/xNVfB40.png) - for most of the $Re$ cases, the Reynolds stress <font color="red">decrease linearly</font> with increasing distance from the wall above plateau region - The $Re_{DH} = 10,000$ deviates: result of not being fully transitioned from laminar to turbulent - Figure 4(c): the comparison of the resulting inner cariable profiles to the Law of the Wall ![](https://i.imgur.com/Vt0fLty.png) - Law of the Wall: the average velocity of a turbulent flow at a certain point is proportional to the logarithm of the distance from that point to the "wall" - ![](https://i.imgur.com/HJzrF3a.png) - The $Re_{DH}$ behavior show that the profile has still not fully transitioned to turbulent behavior - the viscous sublayer penetrates more deeply than expected for a turbulent profile before transitioning to a log-linear region. > 在過渡到對數線性區域之前,viscous sublayer的滲透要比turbulance prifile 所預期的要深。 ## CFD Methodology ![](https://i.imgur.com/ZgIbFjD.png) ## Results ### Friction Factor Comparisons ![](https://i.imgur.com/OHXzwLt.png) - rough surfaces and smooth walls: friction factor profile -> complete turbulence - proof: when $Re$ -> 0 then slope -> 0 - rough surface combinations: none of them reaches complete turbulence - the friction factor becoming constant as a function of $Re$ - 代表 outher region of the flow is still adjusting to the presence of the roughness on both sides of the wall at the highest Reynolds number ### Velocity and Inner Variable Profiles ![](https://i.imgur.com/vZzHwXg.png) - the location of maxiumum velocity shift toward the smooth wall was shown in b,c - the location of maximum velocity run by CFD is shifted upward slightly from the measured velocity profile. ![](https://i.imgur.com/qWVU8rk.png) - the expected downward shift is growing larger with increasing Reynolds number. - For Upskin case(a),the S-A model perform bettern than the k-w SST model - SST model under-predicting the drag on the Upskin surface ### $k_s$: the equivalent sand-grain roughness height using Simpson and Thole correlation $(.)^+$: inner variable or friction quantity # 翻譯版本 ## Introduction 增材製造(3D列印)為設計師提供極大的幾何自由度,可用於創建具有複雜內部結構的零件。 由於此功能,AM具有擴大燃氣輪機葉片內部冷卻通道設計空間的潛力,超出了已建立的減法技術所能實現的範圍。 但是,AM會產生獨特的粗糙度,發現粗糙度取決於打印過程中的表面幾何形狀。 Townsend's hypothesis: 如果將其應用於粗糙度之上的邊界層,則意味著粗糙度信息不會傳遞到內部區域,在該區域內部,湍流運動會導致表面上的流體剪切。 如果Townsend的假設適用於具有不同粗糙度值的兩個相對錶面之間的流動,則每個壁的內部區域中的流動幾乎獨立於另一個壁而起作用。 外層近獨立性的例外是,沿流向的總壓力梯度必須平衡;因此,整體流以較小的摩擦阻力移向壁面。相對於燃氣輪機冷卻通道所需的所需水力直徑,AM表面的粗糙度較大,約為20%。 但是,如果在這些粗糙度長度尺度上,外層對粗糙度不敏感,而內部區域湍流不敏感,則使用當前建模方法預測AM冷卻通道流動的摩擦損失是可行的。 ## Experimental Methodology(實驗方法) 在本研究中,使用AM創建組件以反映AM過程中方向的差異。然後使用光學或計算機斷層掃描(CT)X射線系統掃描表面以表徵表面。表面形貌是相對於管道(風洞)測試截面幾何形狀而言,代表渦輪葉片幾何形狀的比例。當與光滑的壁相對時,研究了表面的流動特性和阻力。隨後研究了不同粗糙度的壁對置時表面的流動性和阻力。 ### Surface Generation ![](https://i.imgur.com/meYEwZ2.png) ### Rough Surface Scaling 然後將比例化的截面沿流向和展向流向反射,以覆蓋每個表面的整個測試表面。然後使用雙二次插值方案創建用於三維打印的表面立體光刻文件。該研究中包括REAL_X102表面,因為使用了不同的縮放比例,從而使粗糙度特徵可以進行幾何級數化 ## Results ### Velocity Profile CFD: S-A model and k-w SST model 一般來說,與其他兩個粗糙度較大的表面相比,預測 Upskin 表面上的阻力對於兩種 RANS 模型來說都是具有挑戰性的。 這可能是由於RANS模型錯誤地將附著的流量保持在該表面典型的較小,孤立的粗糙度元素上。 - figure 9c 在這種情況下,位於直接上游的大粗糙度元件後面的分離流動區域會持續到測量剖面位置,導致最大速度的位置錯誤地朝下壁移動。 - figure 9-11 仿真結果 圖 7-10 反映了本工作中使用的湍流模型的事實 1) 在強壓力梯度或流動分離的區域中掙扎和 2) 在一些封閉方案中調用局部各向同性參數。 因此,解析表面粗糙度對於此類模型具有獨特的挑戰性,因為大多數粗糙度峰的上游表面存在強大的有利壓力梯度,而下游表面存在強大的不利壓力梯度,甚至流動分離。 然而,由於使用更複雜的尺度解析方法(如大渦模擬)的實際局限性,使用 RANS 模型在可用計算資源的約束內以高雷諾數來研究大量幾何仍然很有價值 ### Hama Roughness Function Variation Hama 粗糙度函數 $Δ𝑈^+$ 是基於內部變量輪廓的向下移動來定義的,如等式中所述。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/oPieywF.png) 在過渡狀態下,與表面相關的粗糙度函數預計僅是 $k_s^+$ 的函數,其中 ![](https://i.imgur.com/ks6Q83E.png) - $k_s$: 使用 Simpson 和 Thole 相關性的等效沙粒粗糙度高度 如果兩個相對錶面的內部區域相互作用,則粗糙度函數隨$k_s^+$的變化應基於哪個表面與給定表面相對而不同。 然而,如果 Townsend 的假設成立並且相對錶面的內部區域不相互作用,那麼每個表面的 $k_s^+$ 不取決於哪個表面相對放置。 為了研究粗糙度函數的變化取決於相對的表麵條件,來自 Colebrook 公式的等效粗糙度值,在表 1 中報告,從公式 14 中測得的摩擦速度用於計算內部粗糙度高度。 為了確定粗糙度函數,使用 Eq25 評估測量的內部變量輪廓之間的差異。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/UUX0Xvk.png) 粗糙度函數通過兩種方式確定。 首先,如果輪廓顯示出對數截面,則在Δ𝑢+輪廓中明顯出現高原區域,並且將粗糙度函數Δ𝑈+評估為高原區域中的Δ𝑢+值。 其次,對於沒有明確定義對數截面的輪廓,粗糙度函數被評估為Δ𝑢+的最大值。 在許多出版物中,粗糙度函數是使用粗糙皮膚摩擦係數和光滑摩擦係數之間的差異來評估的,如等式26。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/qiGpOAj.png) 然而,重新審視圖 7 和圖 9,速度剖面和最大速度偏移的位置基於相對壁的條件。因此,關於 Eq26 的問題是“應該使用哪個‘光滑’條件來比較粗糙的皮膚摩擦係數?” 相同體積速度和兩側光滑壁面的 Cf 是合適的條件,還是最大速度和從平均壁面位置到最大流體速度位置的“邊界層高度”的比較條件更合適?由於“平滑”比較中的模糊性,採用了 Eq25 的直接輪廓缺陷方法。 摩擦速度的結果表、基於 Colebrook 粗糙度的粗糙度內雷諾數 $\varepsilon^+ = \varepsilon u^* / v$ 以及Inco718_Upskin、Inco718_Downskin 和 Real_x102 表面的粗糙度函數結果分別在表 2、3、 和 4。得到的粗糙度函數值與圖 11 中的 𝜀+ 對比,其中包括來自 Grigson、Nikuradse 和 Jimenez 的粗糙度函數預測。 除了為 Townsend 的假設提供進一步的證據外,結果還表明,當前的 CFD 建模方法不應該需要大量修改來研究與增材製造的渦輪葉片冷卻通道具有幾何相似性的流動。 ## Conclusions 也就是說,發現粗糙度函數取決於為每個表面評估的等效沙粒粗糙度高度,而與相對壁上放置的表面粗糙度無關。 結果表明,對於在增材製造的燃氣輪機冷卻通道中發現的具有大粗糙度縱橫比 (Rq/Dh) 的通道中的流動,開髮用於模擬摩擦和對流性能的模擬和預測方法的困難在於粗糙度的預測 幾何特徵先驗或在進行等效砂粒粗糙度的實驗測量之前。 相比之下,如果湯森的假設不被支持,那麼預測或設計模型需要同時考慮給定渠道表面的粗糙度和相對錶面的粗糙度。

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