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    # 圖與特徵方程式 ![Creative Commons License](https://i.creativecommons.org/l/by/4.0/88x31.png) This work by Jephian Lin is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). $\newcommand{\trans}{^\top} \newcommand{\adj}{^{\rm adj}} \newcommand{\cof}{^{\rm cof}} \newcommand{\inp}[2]{\left\langle#1,#2\right\rangle} \newcommand{\dunion}{\mathbin{\dot\cup}} \newcommand{\bzero}{\mathbf{0}} \newcommand{\bone}{\mathbf{1}} \newcommand{\ba}{\mathbf{a}} \newcommand{\bb}{\mathbf{b}} \newcommand{\bc}{\mathbf{c}} \newcommand{\bd}{\mathbf{d}} \newcommand{\be}{\mathbf{e}} \newcommand{\bh}{\mathbf{h}} \newcommand{\bp}{\mathbf{p}} \newcommand{\bq}{\mathbf{q}} \newcommand{\br}{\mathbf{r}} \newcommand{\bx}{\mathbf{x}} \newcommand{\by}{\mathbf{y}} \newcommand{\bz}{\mathbf{z}} \newcommand{\bu}{\mathbf{u}} \newcommand{\bv}{\mathbf{v}} \newcommand{\bw}{\mathbf{w}} \newcommand{\tr}{\operatorname{tr}} \newcommand{\nul}{\operatorname{null}} \newcommand{\rank}{\operatorname{rank}} %\newcommand{\ker}{\operatorname{ker}} \newcommand{\range}{\operatorname{range}} \newcommand{\Col}{\operatorname{Col}} \newcommand{\Row}{\operatorname{Row}} \newcommand{\spec}{\operatorname{spec}} \newcommand{\vspan}{\operatorname{span}} \newcommand{\Vol}{\operatorname{Vol}} \newcommand{\sgn}{\operatorname{sgn}} \newcommand{\idmap}{\operatorname{id}} \newcommand{\am}{\operatorname{am}} \newcommand{\gm}{\operatorname{gm}}$ ```python from lingeo import random_int_list from gnm import matrix_digraph, illustrate_sk ``` ## Main idea Let $A$ be an $n\times n$ matrix. From 507, we know that $$ \det(A - xI) = s_0(-x)^n + s_1(-x)^{n-1} + \cdots + s_n. $$ with $$ s_k = \sum_{\substack{\alpha\subseteq[n] \\ |\alpha| = k}} \det A[\alpha]. $$ We also know that the determinants can be calculated through graph theory in 414. In this section, we will see how $s_k$ can be found through the digraph of $A$. Let $\Gamma$ be the weighted digraph of $A$ and $\alpha\subseteq [n]$ a subset of vertices. An **elementary subgraph on $\alpha$** of $\Gamma$ is a subgraph $H$ of $\Gamma$ such that - $V(H) = \alpha$, - $E(H) \subseteq E(\Gamma)$, and - every vertex of $H$ has exactly one directed edge leaving it and exactly one directed edge arriving it. The set of all elementary subgraphs on $\alpha$ of $\Gamma$ is denoted by $\mathfrak{E}_\alpha(\Gamma)$. Every elementary subgraph on $\alpha$ must be composed of some cycles. Let $c(H)$ be the number of cycles, including loops, doubly directed edges, and cycles of length at least $3$. The **sign** of $H$ is defined as $\sgn(H) = (-1)^{|\alpha| + c(H)}$. The **weight** of $H$ is defined as the product of the weights of every edges of $H$. We vacuously define the graph $H$ with no edge and no vertex as the only elementary subgraph on $\emptyset$. Its sign is $1$ and its weight is $1$. Thus, we have $$ \det A[\alpha] = \sum_{H\in\mathfrak{E}_\alpha(\Gamma)} \sgn(H) w(H). $$ Moreover, let $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ be the set of all elementary subgraphs on $\alpha$ of $\Gamma$ with $|\alpha| = k$. Then $$ s_k = \sum_{\substack{\alpha\subseteq[n] \\ |\alpha| = k}} \det A[\alpha] = \sum_{H\in\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)} \sgn(H) w(H). $$ ## Side stories - companion matrix ## Experiments ##### Exercise 1 執行以下程式碼。 ```python ### code set_random_seed(0) print_ans = False n = 3 b = 3 l = random_int_list(n^2 - b, 3) + [0]*b shuffle(l) A = matrix(n, l) pretty_print(LatexExpr("A ="), A) if print_ans: Gamma = matrix_digraph(A) Gamma.show(edge_labels=True) for k in range(1,n+1): print("k =", k) illustrate_sk(A, k) print("characteristic polynomial =", (-1)^n * A.charpoly()) ``` ##### Exercise 1(a) 畫出 $\Gamma(A)$ 並標上每條邊的權重。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** 當 `seed = 100` 時, $$ A = \begin{bmatrix} 2 & 1 & 0 \\ -2 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 2 & 1 \end{bmatrix}. $$ ![](https://i.imgur.com/mhUgu9h.jpg) ##### Exercise 1(b) 對於所有 $k = 1,2,3$,求出所有 $k$ 點的基本子圖,計算其正負號以及權重。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** ![](https://i.imgur.com/bJMxyPr.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/bP1kzTI.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/ru1J454.jpg) ##### Exercise 1(c) 計算 $A$ 的特徵多項式。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** 藉由公式我們可以知道 $$ s_0 = 1 , s_1 = 2 , s_2 = 1 , s_3 = -4. $$ 因此特徵多項式為 $$ p_A(x) = s_0(-x)^3+s_1(-x)^2+s_2(-x)+s_3 = -x^3+2x^2-x-4. $$ ## Exercises ##### Exercise 2 令 $$ A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \end{bmatrix} $$ 且 $\Gamma$ 為其賦權有向圖。 說明 $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ 在 $k = 0,\ldots, 4$ 的時候都是空集合, 而 $\mathfrak{E}_5(\Gamma)$ 只有一個基本子圖。 計算 $A$ 的特徵多項式。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** ![](https://i.imgur.com/rdnWdFn.jpg) 根據圖形,當 $k=1,\ldots,4$ 時,並不滿足每個點一進一出的形式,故未完成循環,因此為空集合。也就是 $$ s_1 = s_2 = s_3 = s_4 = 0. $$ 而 $k = 5$ 的時候能夠滿足每個點一進一出的形式,並且我們能經由圖形看出 $s_5 = 1$。 所以 $A$ 的特徵多項式 $$ p_A(x) = s_0(-x)^5 + s_1(-x)^4 + s_2(-x)^3 + s_3(-x)^2 + s_4(-x) + s_5 = -x^5+1. $$ ##### Exercise 3 令 $$ A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -a_5 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & -a_4 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & -a_3 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & -a_2 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & -a_1 \end{bmatrix} $$ 且 $\Gamma$ 為其賦權有向圖。 說明 $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ 在 $k = 0,\ldots, 5$ 的時候都恰只有一個基本子圖。 計算 $A$ 的特徵多項式。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** ![](https://i.imgur.com/Tlpjlwi.jpg) 根據 $\Gamma$,我們可以看出當 $k = 1,\ldots,5$ 的情形,如下 ![](https://i.imgur.com/8wUrnuZ.jpg) 根據圖形我們可以知道 $$ s_1=-a_1 , s_2=a_2 , s_3=-a_3 , s_4=a_4 , s_5=-a_5. $$ 故 $A$ 的特徵多項式: $$ \begin{aligned} p_A(x) &= s_0(-x)^5 + s_1(-x)^4 + s_2(-x)^3 + s_3(-x)^2 + s_4(-x) + s_5 \\ &= -x^5 - a_1x^4 - a_2x^3 - a_3x^2 - a_4x - a_5. \end{aligned} $$ ##### Exercise 4 令 $$ A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix} $$ 計算 $A$ 的特徵多項式。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** $A$ 的賦權有向圖 $\Gamma$: ![](https://i.imgur.com/oqy0D0Y.jpg) $($ 箭頭所帶之權重皆為 $1$ $)$ 我們觀察到 $\Gamma$ 所有的圈長度都是偶數,所以當 $k$ 為奇數時找不到使用 $k$ 個點的基本子圖,故當 $k$ 為奇數時,$s_k = 0$。也就是 $$ s_1 = s_3 = s_5 = s_7 = 0. $$ 偶數的部分: $k = 2$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ {\{(1,2)}\},{\{(2,3)}\},{\{(3,4)}\},{\{(4,5)}\},{\{(5,6)}\},{\{(6,7)}\},{\{(7,8)}\}. $$ 這些組合的權重皆為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 皆為 $-1$。 所以根據公式,$s_2 = -7$。 \ $k = 4$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ \begin{array}{c} \{{(1,2),(3,4)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,5)}\},\{{(3,4),(5,6)}\},\{{(4,5),(6,7)}\},\{{(5,6),(7,8)}\},\\ \{{(1,2),(4,5)}\},\{{(1,2),(5,6)}\},\{{(1,2),(6,7)}\},\{{(1,2),(7,8)}\},\{{(2,3),(5,6)}\},\\ \{{(2,3),(6,7)}\},\{{(2,3),(7,8)}\},\{{(3,4),(6,7)}\},\{{(3,4),(7,8)}\},\{{(4,5),(7,8)}\}. \end{array} $$ 這些組合的權重皆為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 皆為 $1$。 所以根據公式,$s_4 = 15$。 \ $k = 6$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ \begin{array}{c} \{{(1,2),(3,4),(5,6)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,5),(6,7)}\},\{{(3,4),(5,6),(7,8)}\}, \{{(1,2),(4,5),(6,7)}\},\{{(1,2),(3,4),(6,7)}\},\\ \{{(1,2),(3,4),(7,8)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,5),(7,8)}\},\{{(1,2),(3,5),(6,7)}\},\{{(1,2),(3,5),(6,8)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,6),(7,8)}\}. \end{array} $$ 這些組合的權重皆為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 皆為 $-1$。 所以根據公式,$s_6 = -10$。 而當 $k = 8$ 時,可能的組合僅有 $$ {\{(1,2),(3,4),(5,6),(7,8)}\} $$ 一種,並且此組合的權重為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 為 $1$。所以 $s_8 = 1$。 故可知 $A$ 的特徵多項式: $$ \begin{aligned} p_A(x) &= s_0(-x)^8 + s_1(-x)^7 + s_2(-x)^6 + s_3(-x)^5 + s_4(-x)^4 + s_5(-x)^3 + s_6(-x)^2 + s_7(-x) + s_8 \\ &= x^8 - 7x^6 + 15x^4 - 10x^2 + 1. \end{aligned} $$ ##### Exercise 5 令 $$ A = \begin{bmatrix} 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 & 0 \\ 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 & 1 \\ 1 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 0 & 1 & 0 \end{bmatrix} $$ 計算 $A$ 的特徵多項式。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** $A$ 的賦權有向圖 $\Gamma$: ![](https://i.imgur.com/UTBWzcw.jpg) $($ 箭頭所帶之權重皆為 $1$ $)$ 我們觀察到 $\Gamma$ 所有的圈長度都是偶數,所以當 $k$ 為奇數時找不到使用 $k$ 個點的基本子圖,故當 $k$ 為奇數時,$s_k = 0$。也就是 $$ s_1 = s_3 = s_5 = s_7 = 0. $$ 偶數的部分: $k = 2$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ \{{(1,2)}\},\{{(2,3)}\},\{{(3,4)}\},\{{(4,5)}\},\{{(5,6)}\},\{{(6,7)}\},\{{(7,8)}\},\{{(8,1)}\}. $$ 這些組合的權重皆為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 皆為 $-1$。 所以根據公式,$s_2 = -8$。 \ $k = 4$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ \begin{array}{c} \{{(1,2),(3,4)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,5)}\},\{{(3,4),(5,6)}\},\{{(4,5),(6,7)}\},\{{(5,6),(7,8)}\},\\ \{{(6,7),(8,1)}\},\{{(1,2),(4,5)}\},\{{(1,2),(5,6)}\},\{{(1,2),(6,7)}\},\{{(1,2),(7,8)}\},\\ \{{(2,3),(8,1)}\},\{{(2,3),(5,6)}\},\{{(2,3),(6,7)}\},\{{(2,3),(7,8)}\},\{{(3,4),(6,7)}\},\\ \{{(3,4),(7,8)}\},\{{(3,4),(8,1)}\},\{{(4,5),(7,8)}\},\{{(4,5),(8,1)}\},\{{(5,6),(8,1)}\}. \end{array} $$ 這些組合的權重皆為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 皆為 $1$。 所以根據公式,$s_4 = 20$。 \ $k = 6$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ \begin{array}{c} \{{(1,2),(3,4),(5,6)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,5),(6,7)}\},\{{(3,4),(5,6),(7,8)}\},\{{(4,5),(6,7),(8,1)}\},\\ \{{(5,6),(7,8),(1,2)}\},\{{(6,7),(8,1),(2,3)}\},\{{(7,8),(1,2),(3,4)}\},\{{(8,1),(2,3),(4,5)}\},\\ \{{(1,2),(3,4),(6,7)}\},\{{(2,3),(4,5),(7,8)}\},\{{(3,4),(5,6),(8,1)}\},\{{(4,5),(6,7),(1,2)}\},\\ \{{(5,6),(7,8),(2,3)}\},\{{(6,7),(8,1),(3,4)}\},\{{(7,8),(1,2),(4,5)}\},\{{(8,1),(2,3),(5,6)}\}. \end{array} $$ 這些組合的權重皆為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 皆為 $-1$。 所以根據公式,$s_6 = -16$。 \ $k = 8$ 時,可能的組合為 $$ {\{(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8)}\},{\{(8,7,6,5,4,3,2,1)}\}, \\ {\{(1,2),(3,4),(5,6),(7,8)}\},{\{(2,3),(4,5),(6,7),(8,1)}\}. $$ 其中上排的權重為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 為 $-1$;下排的權重為 $1$,$\sgn(H)$ 為 $1$。 互相抵銷以後得到 $s_8 = 0$。 故可知 $A$ 的特徵多項式: $$ \begin{aligned} p_A(x) &= s_0(-x)^8 + s_1(-x)^7 + s_2(-x)^6 + s_3(-x)^5 + s_4(-x)^4 + s_5(-x)^3 + s_6(-x)^2 + s_7(-x) + s_8 \\ &= x^8 - 8x^6 +20x^4 - 16x^2. \end{aligned} $$ ##### Exercise 6 令 $n_1$ 和 $n_2$ 為兩正整數。 令 $$ M = \begin{bmatrix} O_{n_1,n_1} & B \\ A & O_{n_2,n_2} \end{bmatrix} $$ 且 $\Gamma$ 為其賦權有向圖。 說明 $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ 在 $k$ 不是偶數時都是空集合, 因此 $s_k(M) = 0$。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** 令 $n_1$ 中數字形成的集合為 $R$,$n_2$ 中數字形成的集合為 $P$。 那麼我們能夠從 $M$ 的賦權有向圖 $\Gamma$ 中看出所有在 $B$ 中的元素都表現為 $\Gamma$ 中從 $R$ 指向 $P$ 的一邊;所有在 $A$ 中的元素都表現為 $\Gamma$ 中從 $P$ 指向 $R$ 的一邊。 以下為 $\Gamma$ 的示意圖: ![](https://i.imgur.com/IuChVvo.jpg) 通過此圖我們可以發現: 基於 $\Gamma$ 的結構,所有圈的長度都是偶數。所以 $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ 在 $k$ 不是偶數時都是空集合,因此 $s_k(M) = 0$。 ##### Exercise 7 令 $n_1$、$n_2$、和 $n_3$ 為正整數。 令 $$ M = \begin{bmatrix} O_{n_1,n_1} & B & O \\ O & O_{n_2,n_2} & C \\ A & O & O_{n_3,n_3} \end{bmatrix} $$ 且 $\Gamma$ 為其賦權有向圖。 說明 $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ 在 $k$ 不是 $3$ 的倍數時都是空集合, 因此 $s_k(M) = 0$。 **[答案由汪駿佑同學提供]** 令 $n_1$ 中數字形成的集合為 $R$,$n_2$ 中數字形成的集合為 $P$,$n_2$ 中數字形成的集合為 $Q$。 那麼我們能夠從 $M$ 的賦權有向圖 $\Gamma$ 中看出所有在 $C$ 中的元素都表現為 $\Gamma$ 中從 $R$ 指向 $P$ 的一邊;所有在 $B$ 中的元素都表現為 $\Gamma$ 中從 $Q$ 指向 $R$ 的一邊;所有 $A$ 中的元素都表現為 $\Gamma$ 中從 $P$ 指向 $Q$ 的一邊。 以下為 $\Gamma$ 的示意圖: ![](https://i.imgur.com/f9Xnxkt.jpg) 通過此圖我們可以發現: 基於 $\Gamma$ 的結構,所有圈的長度都是 $3$ 的倍數。所以 $\mathfrak{E}_k(\Gamma)$ 在 $k$ 不是 $3$ 的倍數時都是空集合,因此 $s_k(M) = 0$。 :::info 分數 = 5 :::

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