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    # 十大邏輯謬誤 Top 10 Logical Fallacies ## 1. 不當類比(False analogy) > 指使用不恰當的類比,推論得出不當的結論。 比如: "天無二日,民無二主"; 關鍵在於,分析兩個句子的關聯性,從而得知,天上有沒有兩個太陽,跟人民可不可有兩個領主沒有必言關係。 比如: 智者派在辯論時會說,人跟豬都是動物,因而人跟豬沒有區別。 分析: 動物的關聯性,不足以證明,人跟豬一样,只能說明,人類用語言將人跟豬分到一個名叫動物的類別,但就如,你和你父親是家人的關係,但你不會稱,你是你父親一样。 --- ## 2. 偷換概念(Disguised replacement) > 利用句或詞上出現的歧異,來將另一個概念與原先的概念交換。 比如: 蘇格拉底是人類,而人類在地球已經生活了數萬年,因此蘇格拉底已經活了數萬年。 分析: ```javascript= A: 蘇格拉底是"人類"。 B: "人類"在地球已經生活了數萬年。 ``` 很明顯,人類的語義不一样了,A的人類表示的是一個人而一 個人的壽命卻只有100歲左右,而B中的人類表示的是整體人 類,整體人類當然可以存活了數萬年。 --- ## 3. 稻草人論證(strawman Fallacy) > 是曲解對方的論點,針對曲解後的論點(替身稻草人)攻擊,再宣稱已推翻對方論點的論證方式,是一種非形式謬誤。 例子: 參考Wiki(https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E7%A8%BB%E8%8D%89%E4%BA%BA%E8%AB%96%E8%AD%89) **不要讓小孩亂跑** 甲:我認為孩童不應該往大街上亂跑。 乙:把小孩關起來,不讓他們呼吸新鮮空氣,那真是太愚蠢了。 除了把小孩關起來以外,顯然還有許多方法讓孩童出門而不在大街上亂跑,因而前者無法推理出後者。乙攻擊的論點「應該把小孩關起來」是甲從未提出的,也無法從甲提出的論點推理出來,只是個稻草人,和甲的真正論點毫無關係。 **支持性交易合法與買春** 甲:你支持性交易合法化嗎? 乙:支持啊。 甲:你果然買春過! 甲把「支持性交易合法化」曲解成「買春過」,然而兩者並無必然關係。 ## 4. 假兩難謬誤(False Dilemma) > 是提出少數選項(一般是兩個,但有可能是三個或更多)要人從中擇一,但這些選擇並未涵蓋所有的可能性的非形式謬誤。 例子: A: 我爸經常打我。 B: 你是想你爸經常打你,還是想變成孤兒? 分析: ```javascript= p: 你是想你爸經常打你。 q: 還是想變成孤兒。 ``` p 與 q 沒有必然的關聯性,因而我們有必然問。 為什麼,如果我不想被打,我就一定要成為孤兒呢? 為什麼不能讓我爸換一種教育方式呢? --- ## 5. 滑坡謬誤(Slippery slope) > 是一種非形式謬誤,使用連串的因果推論,卻誇大了每個環節的因果強度,而得到不合理的結論,因為事實不一定照著線性推論發生,而有其他的可能性。台灣一般所說的「無限上綱」有時也牽涉到此種謬誤。 比如: 你不好好上學,就上不了好大學,你上不了好大學,就找不到好工作,你的人生就完了。 ```javascript= p: 上不了好大學; q: 就找不到好工作; r: 你的人生就完了; ``` 上不了好大學,不一定等於找不到好工作。 找不到好工作,不一定等於人生就完了。 ```javascript= // delta 是p與q的關聯性 // 用 - 來表示兩個語句關聯性的運算。 // 若 p - q = 0 則表示兩者間差無絕對相關性。 // 若 p - q != 0 則表示兩者間存在絕對相關性。 delta = p - q; 所以判斷的流程如下: p: 上不了好大學; q: 就找不到好工作; delta = p - q; if delta equal zero then fallacies else correct reasoning ``` --- ## 6. 訴諸人身謬誤(Tu quoque) > 指藉由與當前論題無關之個人特質,如人格、動機、態度、地位、階級或處境等,作為駁斥對方或支持己方論證的理據,是一種不相干的謬誤和紅鯡魚。 比如: 愛因斯坦的生活不檢點,因而他的物理學理論,都是錯的。 分析: ```javascript= p: 愛因斯坦的生活不檢點; q: 愛因斯坦的物理學理論是錯的; r: 愛因斯坦的物理學準確預測出了光的偏差; 愛因斯坦的生活,跟物理定律有什麼關係?難度物理定律會 因為他的生活不檢點而發生改變??這顯然是錯的。 已知: p -> q, r -> ~q; 1) p -> q; 前提 2) p; Hye 3) q; (1), (2) (->+) 4) r; Hyp 5) r -> ~q 前提 6) ~q (4), (5) (->+) 7) ~(p -> q) (3), (6) (~) 從而證得,p -> q = false ``` --- ## 7. 歸因謬誤(False Cause) > 可能存在相關性的兩個事物,不能得出絕對成因。 比如: 金錢出現之前,沒有惡,所以金錢必定是萬惡之源。 分析: 沒有必然相關性。 --- ## 8. 以偏概全(Hasty generalization) 例子:我在日本受到了歧視,因此日本人都歧視中國人。 分析: 個體與整體的區別。 ## 9. 舉證責任(Burden of proof) > 提出觀點的人,有責任舉證,但不能因此強逼對方舉證。 比如: 中醫有用,因為你不能證明其無用。 答: 但是你也不能證明其有用。 ## 10. 紅鯡魚謬誤(Red Herring) > 指以修辭或文學等各種手法轉移議題焦點與注意力。 例子: A: 昨天我領養了一隻狗。 B: 這麼熱心腸,怎麼不見你去老人院照顧老人? 分析: p: 領養了一隻狗. q: 你去老人院照顧老人. p 與 q 並不矛盾。

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