Andrew Chiu
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    # 2020q1 Homework1 (lab0) contributed by < `AndybnACT` > ###### tags: `linux2020` ## :penguin: 作業描述 ### [作業要求](https://hackmd.io/@sysprog/linux2020-lab0#-%E4%BD%9C%E6%A5%AD%E8%A6%81%E6%B1%82) ## 開發紀錄 ### queue.h 為了讓 `q_insert_tail` 和 `q_size` 有 $O(1)$ 的時間複雜度,增加指向串列尾端的指標(`tail`)、和表示元素數量(`nr`)的欄位。接下來,只要在後面實作的函式中適當地更新這些資訊即可。 ```cpp typedef struct { list_ele_t *head; /* Linked list of elements */ list_ele_t *tail; int nr; } queue_t; ``` ### queue.c #### q_new 建立一個新的 queue ,然後將欄位初始化。若 malloc 失敗則在回報錯誤原因後返回 NULL。 ```cpp queue_t *q_new() { queue_t *q = malloc(sizeof(queue_t)); if (!q) { perror("malloc"); return NULL; } q->head = NULL; q->tail = NULL; q->nr = 0; return q; } ``` #### q_free 將整個 queue 所佔據的記憶體空間釋放,包含每個節點內動態配置的資料欄位 `value`。在這裡,用 `while` 迴圈走訪串列中各個節點,同時,用一個 `self` 指標來避免在刪除節點後,走訪下一個節點時發生 use-after-free。最後,記得把 queue 本身的空間也一並釋放。 ```cpp void q_free(queue_t *q) { /* Free queue structure */ list_ele_t *ptr; if (!q) return; ptr = q->head; while (ptr) { list_ele_t *self; self = ptr; ptr = ptr->next; if (self->value) { free(self->value); } free(self); } free(q); } ``` #### q_insert_head 將指定的節點內容 `s` 加入 queue 的最前端,然後更新 `nr`。記得如果這是第一次在 queue 中插入節點(此時 `tail` 為空值),要順便將 `tail` 也一併初始化。過程中若 `strdup` 失敗,則要一併將新配置的節點空間釋放。 ```cpp bool q_insert_head(queue_t *q, char *s) { list_ele_t *newh; if (!q) { return false; } newh = malloc(sizeof(list_ele_t)); if (!newh) { perror("malloc, cannot allocate space for new element"); return false; } /* Don't forget to allocate space for the string and copy it */ /* What if either call to malloc returns NULL? */ newh->value = strdup(s); if (!newh->value) { perror("strdup, cannot allocate space for value"); free(newh); return false; } newh->next = q->head; q->head = newh; if (!q->tail) { q->tail = newh; } q->nr++; return true; } ``` #### q_insert_tail 同理,將指定的節點內容 `s` 加入 queue 的尾端。我們可以直接從 `q->tail` 得到當前 queue 的尾端位置,直接操作、然後更新即可。這邊也透過 `(!q->tail)` 來判斷是否為第一次新增節點,然後做相應的處置。由於新增節點部分的程式碼與 `q_insert_head` 相同,未來開發可以考慮用一個函式呼叫取代之。 ```cpp bool q_insert_tail(queue_t *q, char *s) { list_ele_t *newh; if (!q) { return false; } newh = malloc(sizeof(list_ele_t)); if (!newh) { perror("malloc, cannot allocate space for new element"); return false; } newh->value = strdup(s); if (!newh->value) { perror("strdup, cannot allocate space for value"); free(newh); return false; } newh->next = NULL; if (!q->tail) { q->tail = newh; q->head = newh; } else { q->tail->next = newh; q->tail = newh; } q->nr++; return true; } ``` #### q_remove_head 將 queue 首端的資料節點移除,節點內容複製到 `sp` 當中,然後釋放節點及資料所佔的空間。因為 `strncpy` 不會額外將 null terminator 寫在目標字串的尾端,在複製資料前,透過 `memset` 將 `sp` 的內容全部寫為零,避免在複製不完全的時候發生資料洩漏。同時,在移除最後一個節點的時候,我們必須將 `q->tail` 的值清空,避免之後 `q_insert_tail` 時發生 use-after-free。 ```cpp bool q_remove_head(queue_t *q, char *sp, size_t bufsize) { list_ele_t *rm; if (!q) return false; if (!q->head) return false; rm = q->head; if (sp) { memset(sp, 0, bufsize); if (rm->value) { strncpy(sp, rm->value, bufsize - 1); } } free(rm->value); q->head = rm->next; q->nr--; if (rm == q->tail) q->tail = NULL; free(rm); return true; } ``` #### q_size 直接回傳當前紀錄 queue 所擁有的節點數量。目前在透過 `dudect` 執行時間複雜度測試(trace-17)時,有時會回報為 `Probably not constant time`,還未細究原因。 ```cpp int q_size(queue_t *q) { if (!q || !q->head) { return 0; } return q->nr; } ``` #### q_reverse 在不額外配置空間的限制下,將 queue 的節點次序反轉。函示用 `prev` 紀錄前一個節點的位置,然後將當前節點的下一個 `cur->next` 指向前一個節點、然後更新當前與前一個節點的位置。最後,再更新 queue 頭尾的位置。 ```cpp void q_reverse(queue_t *q) { list_ele_t *cur; list_ele_t *prev, *tmp; if (!q) return; if (!q->head) return; cur = q->head; prev = NULL; while (cur->next) { tmp = cur->next; cur->next = prev; prev = cur; cur = tmp; } cur->next = prev; q->tail = q->head; q->head = cur; return; } ``` #### q_sort 透過 insertion sort 依據節點的字串排序 queue 。過程中,用兩個指標 `head` 及 `tail` 來紀錄排序後的首尾位置,每次從原本的 queue 拿出一個節點來對 `head` 指向的串列做插入排序。為了避免多餘的判斷(判斷插入點是否為串列首端),我們用指標的指標 `list_ele_t **haystack` 指向串列首端的位置 `&head` ,找到插入點之後,只需要將 `*haystack` 的位置更新為即將插入的節點、然後再將插入節點的下一個節點位置更新成原本 `*haystack` 指向的位置即可。記得,若探詢完插入點之後插入點位置為空值,代標即將插入的節點會是最後一個節點,此時要更新 `tail` 指標。 ```cpp void q_sort(queue_t *q) { list_ele_t *head, *tail, *e; if (!q) return; if (!q->head) return; head = q->head; tail = q->head; e = head->next; head->next = NULL; while (e) { list_ele_t *insert = e; list_ele_t **haystack = &head; list_ele_t *tmp; e = e->next; insert->next = NULL; while (*haystack) { if (strcasecmp(insert->value, (*haystack)->value) <= 0) break; haystack = &((*haystack)->next); } if (!*haystack) tail = insert; tmp = *haystack; *haystack = insert; insert->next = tmp; } q->head = head; q->tail = tail; return; } ``` - 將比較函式改為 [natural sort](https://github.com/sourcefrog/natsort): 首先,將 natural sort 的原始碼下載之後,取 `strnatcmp.[c|h]` 檔案,放到 `lab0-c` 的目錄之中。 然後將 `q_sort` 以及 `do_sort` 函式中的比較函式由 `strcasecmp` 換成 `strnatcmp`,還要加上正確的 `include`。 `queue.c:` ```cpp #include "strnatcmp.h" ... void q_sort(queue_t *q) { ... while (*haystack) { if (strnatcmp(insert->value, (*haystack)->value) <= 0) break; haystack = &((*haystack)->next); } ... } ``` `qtest.c:` 這邊可以把 `#include <string.h>` 移除 ```cpp #include "strnatcmp.h" ... bool do_sort(int argc, char *argv[]) { ... if (strnatcmp(e->value, e->next->value) > 0) { report(1, "ERROR: Not sorted in ascending order"); ok = false; break; } ... } ``` 最後,在 `Makefile` 裡面 `OBJS` 變數尾端加上相應的 object file,也就是 `strnatcmp.o`。 ```shell OBJS := qtest.o report.o console.o harness.o queue.o \ random.o dudect/constant.o dudect/fixture.o dudect/ttest.o \ strnatcmp.o ``` 重新編譯,然後測試。使用的測試修改自 `strnatcmp` 的 GitHub repository: `traces/trace-18-natsort.cmd` ``` new ih fred ih pic2 ih pic100a ih pic120 ih pic121 ih jane ih tom ih pic02a ih pic3 ih pic4 ih 1-20 ih pic100 ih pic02000 ih 10-20 ih 1-02 ih 1-2 ih x2-y7 ih x8-y8 ih x2-y08 ih x2-g8 ih pic01 ih pic02 ih pic-6 ih pic----7 ih pic-5 ih pic05 ih pic-5 ih pic-5-something ih pic-4-else sort ``` ```shell $ make $ ./qtest < traces/trace-18-natsort.cmd ``` 測試完成後,發現 commit 時會被 pre-commit.hook 擋下。原因有二,一是新增檔案的 coding-style 不符合 `clang-format`的要求,可以透過 `clang-format -i <file>` 解決。另外一個原因是靜態分析器建議將沒用到的函式 `strnatcasecmp()` 移除、還有一些變數的 `scope` 可以移至 `while` 迴圈裡面。 - 將演算法改為時間複雜度 $O(nlog(n))$ 的 merge sort: 將線上測驗的程式碼改寫,可以達成目標。具體而言,在尋找串列中間點的時候參考 [linked list sort](https://npes87184.github.io/2015-09-12-linkedListSort/) 之中,快指標與慢指標的概念以在正確的位置分割問題;然後在每次 merge 完成之時,紀錄當前的串列尾於 `q->tail` 之中。完成之後,`make valgrind` 以及使用 `SANITIZER=1` 編譯後的執行檔測試都沒有發現問題。 線上測驗在 merge 時的判斷式非常的漂亮,在這個判斷式中,如果左右指標之一為空,都不會進行比較,直接將不為空的那一側節點插入 `merge` 的尾端。 ```cpp (!right || (left && strnatcmp(left->value, right->value) <= 0) ``` 通過測試的完整實作如下,`queue.c`: ```cpp list_ele_t *merge_sort(queue_t *q, list_ele_t *start) { if (!start || !start->next) return start; list_ele_t *left = start; list_ele_t *right; list_ele_t *slow, *fast; list_ele_t *merge; slow = start; fast = slow->next; while (fast && fast->next) { slow = slow->next; fast = fast->next->next; } right = slow->next; slow->next = NULL; left = merge_sort(q, left); right = merge_sort(q, right); for (merge = NULL; left || right;) { if (!right || (left && strnatcmp(left->value, right->value) <= 0)) { if (!merge) { start = merge = left; } else { merge->next = left; merge = merge->next; } left = left->next; } else { if (!merge) { start = merge = right; } else { merge->next = right; merge = merge->next; } right = right->next; } } q->tail = merge; return start; } void q_sort(queue_t *q) { if (!q || !q->head) return; q->head = merge_sort(q, q->head); return; } ``` ## Valgrind 與 Massif 的運用 ### Valgrind 透過 `make valgrind` 檢查是否有記憶體錯誤,初步沒有看到任何錯誤訊息。 ### Massif 用 `valgrind --tool=massif ./qtest` 執行前,必須先將 `.valgrindrc` 裡面的 `--show-leak-kinds=all` 拿掉,可能是 `massif` 看不懂這個參數。成功執行 `qtest` 之後,簡單設計實驗觀察記憶體使用情況: #### Massif 實驗: 在 Massif 的參數裡面,可以指定是否追蹤 stack 的使用情形、以及最終圖表橫軸的呈現方式。圖表橫軸可以理解為時間軸,只是時間軸可以用真實的執行時間 (ms)、執行過的指令 (i)、或配置與釋放的記憶體容量總和 (B)。 實驗的方式是執行兩次 `qtest`,實驗組與對照組,兩次實驗中,首先插入 10 個節點於 queue 裡面;之後執行不需要額外配置記憶體的 `reverse`、和 `(insertion) sort`;最後再將 queue 內部的節點一一釋放、結束程式。實驗組、對照組的差別在於實驗組在釋放節點的時候,使用會額外配置記憶體來暫存節點內部字串資訊的指令 `rh`;而對照組選用單純、不令外配置空間的 `rhq` 指令來釋放節點。 ##### 實驗組: ```shell $ valgrind --tool=massif --stacks=yes --time-unit=i ./qtest (qtest) new (qtest) ih RAND 10 (qtest) reverse (qtest) sort (qtest) rh ... repeat rh command x 10 times (qtest) quit ``` ![img](https://i.imgur.com/3JOcCXt.png) 在實驗組的 massif profile 當中,可以看到程式開始執行之後,記憶體用量逐步增加,應是程式初始化還有插入節點所致。然後有段時間用量持平,應該是在執行 `reverse` 以及 `sort`。接著,顯著地看見 `do_remove_head` 導致用量增加。但事實上 `do_remove_head` 在執行結束前,還是會釋放暫存的字串空間;而 massif 卻沒有如實反映(這段時間折線圖理應在一範圍內上下來回擺動)。釋放完成之後,可以看到由 `test_malloc` 配置的空間已然消失,代表 queue 內部資料空間有被釋放。 --- ##### 對照組: ```shell $ valgrind --tool=massif --stacks=yes --time-unit=i ./qtest (qtest) new (qtest) ih RAND 10 (qtest) reverse (qtest) sort (qtest) rhq ... repeat rhq command x 10 times (qtest) quit ``` ![Imgur](https://i.imgur.com/mi0bG9B.png) 在對照組當中,可以看到前半段(3e5 個指令之前)的 massif profile 大致同實驗組(2e5~3e5 的下降應該也是因為 massif 採樣不足所以略呈下降,理應持平)。後半段因為 `rhq` 不會另外配置空間暫存資料,所以記憶體用量逐步下降,最後歸零。 ## Address Sanitizer 透過 `Makefile` 編譯時,加上選項 ` SANITIZER=1 `,然後執行測試腳本 ```shell $ make SANITIZER=1 $ make test ``` 在第 17 道測試時發生錯誤 ``` ... # Test if q_insert_tail and q_size is constant time complexity ================================================================= ==14773==ERROR: AddressSanitizer: global-buffer-overflow on address 0x558840a45ca0 at pc 0x558840a354b4 bp 0x7ffd7c7d1000 sp 0x7ffd7c7d0ff0 READ of size 4 at 0x558840a45ca0 thread T0 #0 0x558840a354b3 in do_option_cmd /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:368 #1 0x558840a3406d in interpret_cmda /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:220 #2 0x558840a34aa4 in interpret_cmd /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:243 #3 0x558840a35729 in cmd_select /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:571 #4 0x558840a35ac9 in run_console /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:630 #5 0x558840a32c29 in main /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/qtest.c:770 #6 0x7f777a56fee2 in __libc_start_main (/usr/lib/libc.so.6+0x26ee2) #7 0x558840a3044d in _start (/home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/qtest+0x744d) 0x558840a45ca1 is located 0 bytes to the right of global variable 'simulation' defined in 'console.c:20:6' (0x558840a45ca0) of size 1 ``` 發現程式在 `do_option_cmd` 的時候,對 `simulation` 這個變數有越界讀取,詳請見 Commit #[497391f](https://github.com/AndybnACT/lab0-c/commit/497391fd8def1a08038a8abd69e5d91e5259b760)。 ### Commit [497391f](https://github.com/AndybnACT/lab0-c/commit/497391fd8def1a08038a8abd69e5d91e5259b760) 修補方式: #### console.h: 將原本 `int *valp` 更改為 `void *valp` 使其支援多種型態的指標,然後用 `valsize`描述指向區域內容物大小。 ```cpp /* Optionally supply function that gets invoked when parameter changes */ typedef void (*setter_function)(void *oldvalp, int valsize); struct PELE { char *name; void *valp; int valsize; char *documentation; /* Function that gets called whenever parameter changes */ setter_function setter; param_ptr next; }; ``` #### console.c: 在 `do_option_cmd` 裡面,將原本對整數指標取值的行為改成 `memcpy` ```cpp memcpy(oldvalp, &value, sizeof(value) > plist->valsize ? plist->valsize : sizeof(value)); if (plist->setter) plist->setter(oldvalp, plist->valsize); ``` 然後在 add_param 裡面對 valsize 初始化、並將有關呼叫、宣告更新。 ```cpp void add_param(char *name, void *valp, int valsize, char *documentation, setter_function setter) { ... ele->valsize = valsize; ... } ``` 最後,因為 `report` 這個函式會需要取值,寫一個 `generic_plist_getter` 暫時滿足其需求 ```cpp uint32_t generic_plist_getter(param_ptr p) { switch (p->valsize) { case 1: return *((uint8_t *) p->valp); case 2: return *((uint16_t *) p->valp); default: return *((uint32_t *) p->valp); } } ``` 修改之後執行還是發生錯誤,這次是發生在 `strlen` 裡面 ```cpp --- trace-16-perf 0/6 +++ TESTING trace trace-17-complexity: # Test if q_insert_tail and q_size is constant time complexity Testing insert_tail...(0/10) ================================================================= ==15708==ERROR: AddressSanitizer: global-buffer-overflow on address 0x5602c9f2a340 at pc 0x7f6a3fff82d1 bp 0x7ffef2545480 sp 0x7ffef2544c28 READ of size 1 at 0x5602c9f2a340 thread T0 #0 0x7f6a3fff82d0 in __interceptor_strlen /build/gcc/src/gcc/libsanitizer/sanitizer_common/sanitizer_common_interceptors.inc:354 #1 0x5602c9f1a096 in test_strdup /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/harness.c:216 #2 0x5602c9f1a3a4 in q_insert_head /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/queue.c:70 #3 0x5602c9f1b02c in measure dudect/constant.c:64 #4 0x5602c9f1b37b in doit dudect/fixture.c:136 #5 0x5602c9f1b698 in is_insert_tail_const dudect/fixture.c:168 #6 0x5602c9f15992 in do_insert_tail /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/qtest.c:259 #7 0x5602c9f17ec9 in interpret_cmda /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:234 #8 0x5602c9f18900 in interpret_cmd /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:257 #9 0x5602c9f197fb in cmd_select /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:586 #10 0x5602c9f19b9b in run_console /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/console.c:645 #11 0x5602c9f16c3b in main /home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/qtest.c:770 #12 0x7f6a3fcadee2 in __libc_start_main (/usr/lib/libc.so.6+0x26ee2) #13 0x5602c9f1444d in _start (/home/andy/linux2020/lab0-c/qtest+0x744d) 0x5602c9f2a340 is located 32 bytes to the left of global variable 'q' defined in 'dudect/constant.c:21:17' (0x5602c9f2a360) of size 8 0x5602c9f2a340 is located 0 bytes to the right of global variable 'random_string' defined in 'dudect/constant.c:22:13' (0x5602c9f2a020) of size 800 ``` 可見 Address Sanitizer 回報 random_string 尾端有 out-of-bound read 發生,詳請見 Commit [71b0892](https://github.com/AndybnACT/lab0-c/commit/71b0892780f0b8a2c272b16b6ff17e88dc816f4c)。 ### Commit [71b0892](https://github.com/AndybnACT/lab0-c/commit/71b0892780f0b8a2c272b16b6ff17e88dc816f4c) 修補方式: 程式碼中發現在 `get_random_string` 中,對 `random_string` 存取的範圍是由 `number_measurements` 指定,為 150;然而,該陣列在宣告時大小只有 100 。 ```cpp const size_t number_measurements = 150; ... static char random_string[100][8]; ... char *get_random_string(void) { random_string_iter = (random_string_iter + 1) % number_measurements; return random_string[random_string_iter]; } ``` 所以我們定義了一個巨集,然後讓宣告的陣列大小和 `number_measurements` 都由同一個巨集指定,順利解決問題。 ## 論文研讀 Dude, is my code constant time? 是一篇 2016 年的論文。這篇論文主要的目的在用統計學「假設檢定」的方式來確認程式的執行時間不會因輸入的測資的差異而改變;進一步可以用來判斷旁通道攻擊中的 timming attack 對被測試程式的威脅程度。 這篇論文採用的實驗模型將測資分為兩個類型(classes),類型一為唯一固定測資、類型二為其他所有隨機測資的集合。採用的假設檢定為 [Welch's t-test](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welch%27s_t-test),檢定兩個母體的平均值是否有「顯著」差異。這種檢定方式不假設兩母體有同樣的標準差、亦不對兩種採樣的採樣數有所限制。 具體而言,`lab0-c` 實驗分成以下步驟:準備測資、測試、更新統計資料,若資料量足夠則進行假設檢定、反之重複準備測資... 首先,準備測資。固定測資採用長度為零的 empty queue;隨機測資則是不定長度(<1e4)、內容隨機的 queue。兩類型的測資被隨機打散在測試序列當中。每次執行測試時,測資的總數由 `number_measurements` 規範(實際上會減去兩倍的 `drop_size`) ```cpp void prepare_inputs(uint8_t *input_data, uint8_t *classes) { randombytes(input_data, number_measurements * chunk_size); for (size_t i = 0; i < number_measurements; i++) { classes[i] = randombit(); if (classes[i] == 0) *(uint16_t *) (input_data + i * chunk_size) = 0x00; } for (size_t i = 0; i < NR_MEASURE; ++i) { /* Generate random string */ randombytes((uint8_t *) random_string[i], 7); random_string[i][7] = 0; } } ``` 測試執行的方式如下,先將 queue 準備好,然後紀錄 `q_size`(或 `q_insert_tail`)的執行時間。 ```cpp for (size_t i = drop_size; i < number_measurements - drop_size; i++) { char *s = get_random_string(); dut_new(); dut_insert_head( get_random_string(), *(uint16_t *) (input_data + i * chunk_size) % 10000); before_ticks[i] = cpucycles(); dut_insert_tail(s, 1); after_ticks[i] = cpucycles(); dut_free(); } ``` 測試序列完成之後,將 `before_ticks` 與 `after_ticks` 相減得到執行時間,然後更新統計資訊。其中,`t_push` 為即時(Online)更新統計資訊的函式。 ```cpp static void update_statistics(int64_t *exec_times, uint8_t *classes) { for (size_t i = 0; i < number_measurements; i++) { int64_t difference = exec_times[i]; /* Cpu cycle counter overflowed or dropped measurement */ if (difference <= 0) { continue; } /* do a t-test on the execution time */ t_push(t, difference, classes[i]); } } ``` 值得注意的地方是,根據論文描述,因為作業系統運作時中斷、行程切換的緣故,採樣結果通往往會有(skewwed)時間較長的傾向;因此,會將執行時間超過一定閥值的採樣點移除。然而,這樣的方法直接應用在這裡(測試是否為 $O(1)$ )可能會有困難,所以沒有看到類似的程式碼。建議可以改成「移除前 10% 的資料點」達成類似的目標。 最後,進行假設檢定,此時若採樣點已湊齊(`enough_measurements`),則假設檢定的結果具有意義,此時若檢定兩採樣的母體具有顯著差異性,就代表執行時間不是 constant time。 ## select 系統呼叫

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