metalicreptile
    • Create new note
    • Create a note from template
      • Sharing URL Link copied
      • /edit
      • View mode
        • Edit mode
        • View mode
        • Book mode
        • Slide mode
        Edit mode View mode Book mode Slide mode
      • Customize slides
      • Note Permission
      • Read
        • Only me
        • Signed-in users
        • Everyone
        Only me Signed-in users Everyone
      • Write
        • Only me
        • Signed-in users
        • Everyone
        Only me Signed-in users Everyone
      • Engagement control Commenting, Suggest edit, Emoji Reply
    • Invite by email
      Invitee

      This note has no invitees

    • Publish Note

      Share your work with the world Congratulations! 🎉 Your note is out in the world Publish Note No publishing access yet

      Your note will be visible on your profile and discoverable by anyone.
      Your note is now live.
      This note is visible on your profile and discoverable online.
      Everyone on the web can find and read all notes of this public team.

      Your account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

      Your team account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

      Explore these features while you wait
      Complete general settings
      Bookmark and like published notes
      Write a few more notes
      Complete general settings
      Write a few more notes
      See published notes
      Unpublish note
      Please check the box to agree to the Community Guidelines.
      View profile
    • Commenting
      Permission
      Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    • Enable
    • Permission
      • Forbidden
      • Owners
      • Signed-in users
      • Everyone
    • Suggest edit
      Permission
      Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    • Enable
    • Permission
      • Forbidden
      • Owners
      • Signed-in users
    • Emoji Reply
    • Enable
    • Versions and GitHub Sync
    • Note settings
    • Note Insights New
    • Engagement control
    • Make a copy
    • Transfer ownership
    • Delete this note
    • Save as template
    • Insert from template
    • Import from
      • Dropbox
      • Google Drive
      • Gist
      • Clipboard
    • Export to
      • Dropbox
      • Google Drive
      • Gist
    • Download
      • Markdown
      • HTML
      • Raw HTML
Menu Note settings Note Insights Versions and GitHub Sync Sharing URL Create Help
Create Create new note Create a note from template
Menu
Options
Engagement control Make a copy Transfer ownership Delete this note
Import from
Dropbox Google Drive Gist Clipboard
Export to
Dropbox Google Drive Gist
Download
Markdown HTML Raw HTML
Back
Sharing URL Link copied
/edit
View mode
  • Edit mode
  • View mode
  • Book mode
  • Slide mode
Edit mode View mode Book mode Slide mode
Customize slides
Note Permission
Read
Only me
  • Only me
  • Signed-in users
  • Everyone
Only me Signed-in users Everyone
Write
Only me
  • Only me
  • Signed-in users
  • Everyone
Only me Signed-in users Everyone
Engagement control Commenting, Suggest edit, Emoji Reply
  • Invite by email
    Invitee

    This note has no invitees

  • Publish Note

    Share your work with the world Congratulations! 🎉 Your note is out in the world Publish Note No publishing access yet

    Your note will be visible on your profile and discoverable by anyone.
    Your note is now live.
    This note is visible on your profile and discoverable online.
    Everyone on the web can find and read all notes of this public team.

    Your account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

    Your team account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

    Explore these features while you wait
    Complete general settings
    Bookmark and like published notes
    Write a few more notes
    Complete general settings
    Write a few more notes
    See published notes
    Unpublish note
    Please check the box to agree to the Community Guidelines.
    View profile
    Engagement control
    Commenting
    Permission
    Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    Enable
    Permission
    • Forbidden
    • Owners
    • Signed-in users
    • Everyone
    Suggest edit
    Permission
    Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    Enable
    Permission
    • Forbidden
    • Owners
    • Signed-in users
    Emoji Reply
    Enable
    Import from Dropbox Google Drive Gist Clipboard
       Owned this note    Owned this note      
    Published Linked with GitHub
    • Any changes
      Be notified of any changes
    • Mention me
      Be notified of mention me
    • Unsubscribe
    # Judgement Under Uncertainty ###### tags: `Management Science Modeling` `Prospect Theory` `Expected Utility Theory` 各種模型常常被人詬病的最大問題就是許多模型都假設「人是理性的」,但是大家都知道這是個與現實悖離的假設。隨著我們對人類的不理性有更多了解,我們開始可以建構模型來解釋人的不理性是如何影響決策。其中一個很成功可以模擬不理性的模型叫做 Prospect Theory (展望理論),今天的主題就是要透過展望理論解析人們的一些不理性行為。 ## Exepected Utility Theory (期望效用理論) ### 定義 在我們講不理性之前,我們要先想我們在理性的時候會怎麼建立我們的模型,所以現在我們就來談談期望效用理論。 期望效用理論其實很直觀,就是我們高中學的期望值的概念。簡單來說,就是給定某事件發生的機率p乘上某事件的報酬u,所有的p*u加總就是我們的期望值U。假設U是101新台幣,代表你預期你會得到101塊,且你有保證得到100塊新台幣的選項給你做選擇且你是理性人的話,你會選擇前者。 這個理論可以模擬其中一個人類不理性的情況在於當你的期望效用函數是凹口向下的函數的話,我們就可以模擬出人類是風險趨避的生物。那什麼是風險趨避? ### 風險趨避 今天有兩個選擇: > A 你有80%的機會贏得4000元,20%的機會一毛都得不到。 > B 你直接獲得3000元。 你會選擇哪個? 根據調查,選擇B選項的人比較多。這個東西充分表現出大家是風險趨避的現象:即便A選項的期望值比較高(3200元),大家還是比較傾向直接獲得3000元。我們圖解一下這個模型: ![](https://i.imgur.com/mTMhCvT.jpg) 藍色的函數是效益函數,灰色的割線是期望值。根據期望值的定義,我們等於是取0與4000之間的加權平均,得到割線上的3200。把剛剛那個例子套進來,voila,我們成功模擬出來了!3200的期望值其實跟直接拿到3000塊的報酬是差不多的。透過這張圖我們就可以模擬出「人是風險趨避的生物」的現象。 **這張圖也可以詮釋保險公司的商業模式。** 如果你是一個散戶,你基本上就一條命而已。為了保住你這條小命,或者是至少不要讓你遭遇意外的時候賠那麼多錢,你願意多花一些錢來保護自己免受損害。簡而言之,你不理性。因為即便數學告訴你你根本不會有事,你還是覺得會不會哪天真的雖到就出事了結果就血本無歸(也就是你對數學的不信任)。如下圖所示。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/vm8d5PH.jpg) 今天你心裡覺得期望值告訴你你得的到的東西,但你覺得你寧願用低一點卻是實打實一定拿得到的價格去換他,這就是保險商要去算出來大家到底多怕風險。 保險公司之所以可以這樣搞,原因就是因為他有大數法則的支撐。你的不信任其實是不實際的,畢竟數學就告訴我們你如果嘗試多次一點的話你是可以達到的期望值的。散戶們因為命就一條,比較怕;保險公司因為他把保險賣給很多人,所以它就相較起來比較容易接近期望值,也就可以比較理性。 同樣的道理,賭場其實不怕你賭錢。因為如果來賭的人多的話,他們理論上都是會賺錢的。賭場怕的是那些很少出現的那種超級大咖,一次丟下去的賭注都是上千萬那種的,因為他們就不符合大數法則了,就真的是運氣。 剛剛前面也提過期望效用理論能夠描述的情況有限,所以我們需要一些修正才能改良它。 ## Prospect Theory (展望理論) ### 期望效用無法衡量什麼

    Import from clipboard

    Paste your markdown or webpage here...

    Advanced permission required

    Your current role can only read. Ask the system administrator to acquire write and comment permission.

    This team is disabled

    Sorry, this team is disabled. You can't edit this note.

    This note is locked

    Sorry, only owner can edit this note.

    Reach the limit

    Sorry, you've reached the max length this note can be.
    Please reduce the content or divide it to more notes, thank you!

    Import from Gist

    Import from Snippet

    or

    Export to Snippet

    Are you sure?

    Do you really want to delete this note?
    All users will lose their connection.

    Create a note from template

    Create a note from template

    Oops...
    This template has been removed or transferred.
    Upgrade
    All
    • All
    • Team
    No template.

    Create a template

    Upgrade

    Delete template

    Do you really want to delete this template?
    Turn this template into a regular note and keep its content, versions, and comments.

    This page need refresh

    You have an incompatible client version.
    Refresh to update.
    New version available!
    See releases notes here
    Refresh to enjoy new features.
    Your user state has changed.
    Refresh to load new user state.

    Sign in

    Forgot password
    or
    Sign in via Google Sign in via Facebook Sign in via X(Twitter) Sign in via GitHub Sign in via Dropbox Sign in with Wallet
    Wallet ( )
    Connect another wallet

    New to HackMD? Sign up

    By signing in, you agree to our terms of service.

    Help

    • English
    • 中文
    • Français
    • Deutsch
    • 日本語
    • Español
    • Català
    • Ελληνικά
    • Português
    • italiano
    • Türkçe
    • Русский
    • Nederlands
    • hrvatski jezik
    • język polski
    • Українська
    • हिन्दी
    • svenska
    • Esperanto
    • dansk

    Documents

    Help & Tutorial

    How to use Book mode

    Slide Example

    API Docs

    Edit in VSCode

    Install browser extension

    Contacts

    Feedback

    Discord

    Send us email

    Resources

    Releases

    Pricing

    Blog

    Policy

    Terms

    Privacy

    Cheatsheet

    Syntax Example Reference
    # Header Header 基本排版
    - Unordered List
    • Unordered List
    1. Ordered List
    1. Ordered List
    - [ ] Todo List
    • Todo List
    > Blockquote
    Blockquote
    **Bold font** Bold font
    *Italics font* Italics font
    ~~Strikethrough~~ Strikethrough
    19^th^ 19th
    H~2~O H2O
    ++Inserted text++ Inserted text
    ==Marked text== Marked text
    [link text](https:// "title") Link
    ![image alt](https:// "title") Image
    `Code` Code 在筆記中貼入程式碼
    ```javascript
    var i = 0;
    ```
    var i = 0;
    :smile: :smile: Emoji list
    {%youtube youtube_id %} Externals
    $L^aT_eX$ LaTeX
    :::info
    This is a alert area.
    :::

    This is a alert area.

    Versions and GitHub Sync
    Get Full History Access

    • Edit version name
    • Delete

    revision author avatar     named on  

    More Less

    Note content is identical to the latest version.
    Compare
      Choose a version
      No search result
      Version not found
    Sign in to link this note to GitHub
    Learn more
    This note is not linked with GitHub
     

    Feedback

    Submission failed, please try again

    Thanks for your support.

    On a scale of 0-10, how likely is it that you would recommend HackMD to your friends, family or business associates?

    Please give us some advice and help us improve HackMD.

     

    Thanks for your feedback

    Remove version name

    Do you want to remove this version name and description?

    Transfer ownership

    Transfer to
      Warning: is a public team. If you transfer note to this team, everyone on the web can find and read this note.

        Link with GitHub

        Please authorize HackMD on GitHub
        • Please sign in to GitHub and install the HackMD app on your GitHub repo.
        • HackMD links with GitHub through a GitHub App. You can choose which repo to install our App.
        Learn more  Sign in to GitHub

        Push the note to GitHub Push to GitHub Pull a file from GitHub

          Authorize again
         

        Choose which file to push to

        Select repo
        Refresh Authorize more repos
        Select branch
        Select file
        Select branch
        Choose version(s) to push
        • Save a new version and push
        • Choose from existing versions
        Include title and tags
        Available push count

        Pull from GitHub

         
        File from GitHub
        File from HackMD

        GitHub Link Settings

        File linked

        Linked by
        File path
        Last synced branch
        Available push count

        Danger Zone

        Unlink
        You will no longer receive notification when GitHub file changes after unlink.

        Syncing

        Push failed

        Push successfully