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    ###### tags: `地球物理` `資料分析` # 觀測地震學 ## 地震公民教育 * 理解地震的發生,不迷信不聽謠言 * 明白如何觀測地震,單位測報的資訊 * 清楚地震災害的種類,對環境變化不至慌亂 * 了解如何因應地震,採取必要安全措施保護生命財產 ## 地震學 ### 地震學簡介 * 1906/04/18 05:12 舊金山大地震 > 聖安德列斯斷層線附近因擠壓而隆起,受雨水侵蝕形成向兩側的侵蝕溝(可藉由侵蝕溝位移分量了解板塊移動速率) * 地震後地震學家藉由測量資訊開始了解地震規模、板塊與原因 ### 地震原因 #### 彈性回跳理論 Elastic Rebound * 地殼受力,斷層間摩擦力阻止斷層滑移,出現變形(以彈性位能儲存) * 應力克服摩擦力以致斷層產生瞬間錯動 * 釋放的應變能以彈性波向四面八方輻射(釋放彈性位能) * 地下水流過(帶來礦物結晶在斷層線上),使斷層線癒合,強度復原 ### 震源物理 * 了解彈性回跳理論中的物理參數,藉此了解震源與預測地震 ![](https://i.imgur.com/0NBp46F.png) * 剪切應力、剪切應變、岩石強度、地震強度 * 地震預警(EEW) * ${V_p}={\sqrt \frac{\lambda+2\mu}{\rho} } ,V_s={\sqrt \frac{\mu}{\rho} }$, ${\lambda}$為拉梅參數 * $V_P:V_S=1.7-1.8:1$,約快($\sqrt 3$)倍 #### 問題 * 剪切應力的累積並非線性,因此地震難以預測(但可預估大致的週期) * 其他預測方法:地電場、地磁場、電離層、斷層線旁的微小震動 * 準確度仍低,難以準確預測,目前以地震預報與預警為主 ## 地震學 Seismology #### 研究地震及彈性波在地球或其他行星內部傳遞的科學 >月震相較地震,因地質結構組成不同,衰減速度較慢 * 觀測地震學:依據地震波型研究震源、結構的科學 * 地表位移$u(r,t)=s(r,t)*E(r,t)*a(r,t)*I(r,t)$ 為震源破裂型態s、地球結構E、場址效應a、儀器響應I (須去除) 的總和 * 自由震盪:地震發生時,整個星體表面會有微微的章動,可藉由遙測此現象發現日震、月震、恆星震(Gaia的天體測量)等 * 理論 * 地震防災 * 地震預警 * 計算 * 震測探勘 * 法醫、偵探⋯⋯ ### 地震波震動 #### 體波 * P波:縱波,疏密波 * S波:橫波,剪力波 #### 表面波 * 雷利波:向後繞圓(橢圓)的波型,能量最大(沿地震傳遞方向震盪) * 洛夫波:向X軸前進(左右震盪),向Y軸震盪(上下震盪) ### 定性觀測 * 單純的觀測地震發生,無法得知地震參數 * 張衡(西元132年)候風地震儀 * 16世紀,愛爾蘭商人旅經義大利地震災區,發現震度因人而異 * 葡萄牙里斯本大地震(1755),地震現象學起源 ### 現代觀測 * 感震器、計時器、記錄器 * Robert Mallet (1857)奠基現代地震觀測儀器基礎 * 義大利Filippo(1875),第一部地震儀(環狀紀錄) * William Milne(1892),精密地震儀 * 第一個遠震地震波型紀錄(1889),德國波茲坦紀錄日本規模約5.8地震 #### 應用 * 現代地球結構、地球剖面、地球參考模型(PREM)⋯⋯ * 歷史發展 1. 1906發現地殼存在 2. 1909發現莫荷面 3. 1913古氏不連續面 4. 1934-1962長周期地震波資料 5. 1936發現內核 6. 1939以地震波到時資料發展地球頗面圖(J-B Table) * 1910 彈性回跳理論 * 1928 確認深震存在 * 1930 芮氏規模定量估計地震相對大小 * 1940 全球地震分佈 :arrow_right: 地震帶 * 地震、火山、核試爆監測 * WWSSN,IMS,GSN,GOFON,GEOSCOPE,FDSN 全球地震監測 * 長週期訊號(低頻),能量較強,震幅隨距離衰減較少,可傳較遠 * 短周期訊號(高頻),時間解析度高 ### 震波走時 * P波走時 * 惠更斯定理:震源發震到測站,有一個直達波($P_g$)、反射波($P_mP$)、折射波。再用距離/速率可求出走時 ![](https://i.imgur.com/n5vk4Bb.png) * 臨界距離:折射波與反射波走時出現差異的距離 * 超越距離:當測站距離震源的距離>超越距離,則是折射波第一個抵達,而非直達波 ![](https://i.imgur.com/v6xUeje.png) ### 球體波線理論 snell's law \begin{gather*}\frac{sin(\theta_1)}{v_1}= \frac{sin(\theta_2)}{v_2}\end{gather*} 在球體中,修正與折射路徑r與慢度u(速度倒數)的關係: \begin{gather*}u_1{sin\theta_1}{(r_1)}= u_2{sin\theta_2}{(r_1)}\end{gather*} ![](https://i.imgur.com/eeByvOR.png) 球體中$sin\theta_2(r)$可表示為: \begin{gather*}{sin\theta_2}{(r)}= \frac{r_{min}}{r} \end{gather*} 因此,$\theta_2(r_1)與\theta_2(r_2)$關係為 \begin{gather*}r_1{sin\theta_2}{(r_1)}= r_2{sin\theta_2}{(r_2)}\end{gather*} 除以$r_1$ \begin{gather*}{sin\theta_2}{(r_1)}= \frac{r_2}{r_1}{sin\theta_2}{(r_2)}\end{gather*} 上式代入修正後的絲乃爾定律: \begin{gather*}r_1u_1{sin\theta_1}= r_2u_2{sin\theta_2}\end{gather*} \begin{gather*}p_{sph}=rusin\theta\end{gather*} 打入的角度$\theta_1$越大,折射越大,傳得越近 走時斜率=$u sin\theta = p_{sph}/r, \theta越大,斜率越高,距離越近$ ![](https://i.imgur.com/Aq6oJ42.png) ### 體波傳遞 * 經過外核的P波紀錄為K,內核為I,地函為P * S波經外核之後,剪切方向的波會被濾除,僅剩$S_V$波 * P波陰影帶 ![](https://i.imgur.com/AwtmG7i.png) ### 表面波傳遞 * 表面波的傳遞會傳遞數千公里,從優弧與劣弧不斷傳遞,在地震波紀錄上不斷出現![](https://i.imgur.com/q13B71z.png) Credit:IRISㄠ ## 地震觀測 ### 台灣地震觀測網 * 氣象局偏人口密集區 * 中央研究院偏山區 * 配置短中寬頻地震儀、強地動地震儀 ### 振動訊號 * 地震 * 山崩、土石流 * 火山運動 * 隕石撞擊 * 冰山碰撞 * 冰河地震 * 礦石開採 * 核試爆 * 意外爆炸 * 航空器墜落 * 恐怖攻擊 * 海水震動:arrow_right:海浪:arrow_right:風速:arrow_right:大氣擾動(海水震動形成波浪,對海底來說相當於有位能變化,對海底施力,為水下噪音) #### 頻散 * 物理量隨週期/頻率的變化 * 長週期速度較短週期表面波快,表面波速度與頻率有關聯 ### 波形判讀 * 波相抵達時間 * 波相震幅 * 波相極性(上下動) * 波相頻率 * 波動持續時間 * 波相類別 * 全波形 * 震源破裂型態 * 地下結構 #### 震源方向 * 依照P波推拉、東西向、南北向初動方向,決定震源位置 * E.g. 初動為拉力(負值)、南北向負值(南方)、東西向正值(東方),代表震源大致位於東南方;初動為推力(正值),表震源方向在初動方向的反向 ### 地震預警 #### 現地預警 * 地震到達時透過偵測P波,短時間內預測地震強度與S波 * 優點:可快速了解地震強度,缺點:地震需測得P波後才能預警 #### 區域預警 * 地震測站測得訊號後,通知周圍區域預警 * 優點:可更早測得地震訊號,缺點:若震央距離預警區過近預報效益低 ## 板塊構造學說 ### 隱沒帶 Subduction Zone * 陸陸碰撞:地殼厚度大概增厚至大陸地殼兩倍(70km),西馬拉雅 * 陸海碰撞:安地斯山脈 * 海海碰撞:台灣 ### 斷層 Fault * 正斷層 * 逆斷層 * 走滑斷層 * 轉型斷層 >中洋脊附近地殼較年輕,較熱,密度較小。 >靠近中洋脊處地殼越厚,但沉積物厚度越薄。 #### 逃脫作用 * 受兩板塊擠壓,中間的地殼向外變形,越外面逃脫速度越大。因逃脫速度有差異,中間形成走滑斷層。 ### 餘後變形 * 地震後地層不會瞬間復原,會逐漸復原至原先變形斜率 ### 海嘯 * 隱沒帶上覆板塊上升縮短 * 應變能累積至地震釋放 * 摩擦力被剪切應力克服,上覆板塊下降伸長 ### 斷層破裂型態 * 斷層面上的錯動釋放能量時,可能是同時好幾次地震釋放 * 芮氏規模主要判斷最大的地震規模 * 地震矩規模=地層剛性x滑移量x斷層面積,較明確反應地震的規模大小 ### 震源機制 ![](https://i.imgur.com/iCf77xH.png) ? ### 太空遙測 * 合成干涉 * 垂直地表位移量 * 電離層觀測 ## 地震學應用 * 地震分佈與隱沒帶 * 餘震模型 * 震源物理 * 水平地震應力/震源機制解 * 資源探勘 * 環境監測:地下水影響地震波傳遞速度 * 法醫地震學:透過地震監測了解爆炸之類的災害狀況 * 台灣的同震變形:以澎湖為基準點,蘭嶼移動最快 * 西部麓山帶具多剪切應變儲存(斷層),為潛在危險區 * 以此為據,發展地震風險管理、長期地震預報 ## 資料庫 * [TECEC](https://tecdc.earth.sinica.edu.tw/tecdc/seis.php) * [P-alart](https://palert.earth.sinica.edu.tw/) * [3D災害潛勢地圖](https://dmap.ncdr.nat.gov.tw/1109/map/)

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