Mark Hsu
  • NEW!
    NEW!  Connect Ideas Across Notes
    Save time and share insights. With Paragraph Citation, you can quote others’ work with source info built in. If someone cites your note, you’ll see a card showing where it’s used—bringing notes closer together.
    Got it
      • Create new note
      • Create a note from template
        • Sharing URL Link copied
        • /edit
        • View mode
          • Edit mode
          • View mode
          • Book mode
          • Slide mode
          Edit mode View mode Book mode Slide mode
        • Customize slides
        • Note Permission
        • Read
          • Only me
          • Signed-in users
          • Everyone
          Only me Signed-in users Everyone
        • Write
          • Only me
          • Signed-in users
          • Everyone
          Only me Signed-in users Everyone
        • Engagement control Commenting, Suggest edit, Emoji Reply
      • Invite by email
        Invitee

        This note has no invitees

      • Publish Note

        Share your work with the world Congratulations! 🎉 Your note is out in the world Publish Note No publishing access yet

        Your note will be visible on your profile and discoverable by anyone.
        Your note is now live.
        This note is visible on your profile and discoverable online.
        Everyone on the web can find and read all notes of this public team.

        Your account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

        Your team account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

        Explore these features while you wait
        Complete general settings
        Bookmark and like published notes
        Write a few more notes
        Complete general settings
        Write a few more notes
        See published notes
        Unpublish note
        Please check the box to agree to the Community Guidelines.
        View profile
      • Commenting
        Permission
        Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
      • Enable
      • Permission
        • Forbidden
        • Owners
        • Signed-in users
        • Everyone
      • Suggest edit
        Permission
        Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
      • Enable
      • Permission
        • Forbidden
        • Owners
        • Signed-in users
      • Emoji Reply
      • Enable
      • Versions and GitHub Sync
      • Note settings
      • Note Insights New
      • Engagement control
      • Make a copy
      • Transfer ownership
      • Delete this note
      • Save as template
      • Insert from template
      • Import from
        • Dropbox
        • Google Drive
        • Gist
        • Clipboard
      • Export to
        • Dropbox
        • Google Drive
        • Gist
      • Download
        • Markdown
        • HTML
        • Raw HTML
    Menu Note settings Note Insights Versions and GitHub Sync Sharing URL Create Help
    Create Create new note Create a note from template
    Menu
    Options
    Engagement control Make a copy Transfer ownership Delete this note
    Import from
    Dropbox Google Drive Gist Clipboard
    Export to
    Dropbox Google Drive Gist
    Download
    Markdown HTML Raw HTML
    Back
    Sharing URL Link copied
    /edit
    View mode
    • Edit mode
    • View mode
    • Book mode
    • Slide mode
    Edit mode View mode Book mode Slide mode
    Customize slides
    Note Permission
    Read
    Only me
    • Only me
    • Signed-in users
    • Everyone
    Only me Signed-in users Everyone
    Write
    Only me
    • Only me
    • Signed-in users
    • Everyone
    Only me Signed-in users Everyone
    Engagement control Commenting, Suggest edit, Emoji Reply
  • Invite by email
    Invitee

    This note has no invitees

  • Publish Note

    Share your work with the world Congratulations! 🎉 Your note is out in the world Publish Note No publishing access yet

    Your note will be visible on your profile and discoverable by anyone.
    Your note is now live.
    This note is visible on your profile and discoverable online.
    Everyone on the web can find and read all notes of this public team.

    Your account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

    Your team account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

    Explore these features while you wait
    Complete general settings
    Bookmark and like published notes
    Write a few more notes
    Complete general settings
    Write a few more notes
    See published notes
    Unpublish note
    Please check the box to agree to the Community Guidelines.
    View profile
    Engagement control
    Commenting
    Permission
    Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    Enable
    Permission
    • Forbidden
    • Owners
    • Signed-in users
    • Everyone
    Suggest edit
    Permission
    Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    Enable
    Permission
    • Forbidden
    • Owners
    • Signed-in users
    Emoji Reply
    Enable
    Import from Dropbox Google Drive Gist Clipboard
       Owned this note    Owned this note      
    Published Linked with GitHub
    • Any changes
      Be notified of any changes
    • Mention me
      Be notified of mention me
    • Unsubscribe
    # 數學之美 ## 質數 - 質數定理:在{2,3,...,n)中的質數,大約有$\frac{n}{log_en}$ 個 - 歌德巴赫猜想:任何大於二的偶數,可以寫成兩質數和。 - 孿生質數猜想:孿生質數有無窮多個。 - 目前被證明相差不超過246的質數對,有無窮多個 - RSA - TLS/SSL使用RSA加密,防止機密資料在傳輸過程被竊取 - 步驟: - 1.挑出大質數p,q,算出 - **n=pq** - **m=(p-1)(q-1)** - 2.挑出和m互質的質數**e** - 3.找出e的乘法反元素**d**(mod m) - 4.(e,n)是公鑰,(d,n)是私鑰 - 加密:$密文=明文^e~mod~n$ - 解密:$明文=密文^d~mod~n$ - 定理一:質數的個數有無窮多個 - 1.Euclid反證法:假設有限多個 -->矛盾 - 2.歌德巴赫:兩兩互質的數字有無窮多個 -->質(因)數無窮多 - 費馬數$F_n=2^{2^n}+1$ - Lemma2:$F_j=2+\prod\limits_{i=0}^{j-1}F_{i}$ - $2+\prod\limits_{i=0}^{j-1}F_{i}=2+\prod\limits_{i=0}^{j-2}F_{i}F_{j-1}=2+(F_{j-1}-2)F_{j-1}=F_j$ - Lemma1:費馬數兩兩互質 - $gcd(F_i,F_j)|F_j-2$ - $gcd(F_i,F_j)|F_j$ - 3.拉格朗日(有限乘法群) - 4.Euler - 5.Furstenberg - 6.Erdos - 疊書問題 - $d_i=\frac{1}{i}$ - $\sum\limits_{i\gt0}\frac{1}{i}=\infty$ 調和級數 - 定理二:$\sum\limits_{p~is~prime}\frac{1}{P}=\infty$ - 1.平方數觀察:1~2n的平方數,最多$\sqrt{2n}個$ - 2.次不過一觀察:$p_1^{b_1}...p_k^{b_k}形式的數,最多2^k種$ - 3.前質因數觀察:1~2n的數中,$c^2p_1^{b_1}...p_k^{b_k}形式的數,最多\sqrt{2n}2^k種$ - 4.後質因數觀察:1~2n的數中,p的倍數最多$\frac{2n}{p}個$ - 5.關鍵觀察:如果$r_1,r_2,...$是實數,且$\sum\limits_{i=1}^{\infty}r_i<\infty$,則存在k使得$\sum\limits_{i=k}^{\infty}r_i<\frac{1}{2}$ - 證明:令$p_1,p_2,...$是所有的質數 - 假設$\sum\limits_{i=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{p_i}<\infty$,則存在k滿足$\sum\limits_{i=k}^{\infty}\frac{1}{p_i}<\frac{1}{2}$ - $n=2^{2k+1}$,後質因數$=\{p_k,p_{k+1},...\}$ - $N_前=\{1\sim 2n中沒有後質因數的數\}$ - $N_後=\{1\sim 2n中有後質因數的數\}$ - $|N_後|\le\frac{2n}{p_k}+\frac{2n}{p_{k+1}}+...<n$ - $|N_前|\le 2^{k-1}\cdot\sqrt{2n}=2^{k-1}\cdot\sqrt{2^{2k+2}}=2^{2k}<n$ ## 無窮與無理1 - 刀砍海怪 - 任意砍掉一個頭(紅點) - 如果砍的頭直接長在身體(黑點)上 - 砍掉就砍掉,直接進入下一回合 - 如果砍的頭是長在脖子(藍點)上 - 砍掉之後,在進入下一回合之前,必須先把分支都複製兩份 - 定理一:從任何長相的海怪開始,以任何順序砍頭,最後海怪必定會被消滅。 - 定理二:只根據Peano的自然數公設是絕對證不出定理一。 - 1.0 是自然數。 - 2.如果 a 是自然數,則 a 的後繼元素也是自然數。 - 3.0 不是任何自然數的後繼元素。 - 4.如果兩個自然數的後繼元素相等,則這兩個自然數相等。 - 5.如果有一個自然數的子集 S 包含 0 ,同時,也包含 S 之中每一個元素的後繼元素,則每一個自然數都落在 S 這個集合之中。 - 哥德不完備 - 希爾伯德認為:自然數的性質只要成立就一定可以證得出來 - 哥德卻證出:任何數學系統只要包含Peano Axioms,就必定有個該系統可以描述的正確敘述,是在該系統中絕對證明不出來的 - 海怪對應自然數 - 每個海怪對應到二進位中某個整數 - f(x,i)=y,是一個給定的function,滿足海怪性質 - 海怪定理:每個自然數x,對每個無窮序列$i_1,i_2,...$,都存在某個自然數k,使得$f(f(...f(x,i_1),...)i_k)=0$ - 3n+1猜想 - 又稱**奇偶歸一猜想**、**3n+1猜想**、**冰雹猜想**、**角谷猜想**、**哈塞猜想**、**烏拉姆猜想**、**敘拉古猜想** - ![](https://i.imgur.com/HMQU6fX.png),只要從正整數開始,一定會收斂到 1 - 停機問題 - Turing用對角線證法,證明這個問題不存在任何電腦硬體軟體能正確解答 - 黃金比例 $\phi$ - 畢氏音階:不同音高的音階,頻率比為$3^n:2^m$ - 五芒星:![](https://i.imgur.com/B4DUQYK.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/r7YvXI3.png) - ![](https://i.imgur.com/ilVZxZf.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/DHvUtHl.png) - 定理三:對任意兩整數a,b,![](https://i.imgur.com/yqbuuy7.png) - 尤拉數 $e$ - ![](https://i.imgur.com/VtlLBiE.png) - 尤拉數來自金融:![](https://i.imgur.com/V0QXg3n.png) ## 無窮與無理2 - 尤拉 Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) - 平均每年發表八百頁的學術論文,是史上發表論文數第二多的數學家,紀錄到20世紀才被Paul Erdős打破 - 人生最後7年,雙目全盲,仍以驚人速度產出生平一半著作 - 七橋問題、$i=\sqrt{-1},sin,cos,\pi$ - 定理:對任意正整數a,b,$\sum\limits_{n=0}^{\infty}\frac{1}{n!}\ne\frac{a}{b}$ - $m=b!(\frac{a}{b}-\sum\limits_{n=0}^{b}\frac{1}{n!})=b!\sum\limits_{n=b+1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{n!}=\frac{1}{b+1}+\frac{1}{(b+1)(b+2)}+...$ - $<\sum\limits_{n=1}^{\infty}\frac{1}{(b+1)^n}=\frac{\frac{1}{b+1}}{1-\frac{1}{b+1}}=\frac{1}{b}\le1$ - 等比級數 - $1+r+r^2+...=\frac{1}{1-r}$ - 公式 - $\frac{\pi}{4}=1-\frac{1}{3}+\frac{1}{5}-\frac{1}{7}+...$ - $\frac{\pi^2}{6}=1+\frac{1}{2^2}+\frac{1}{3^2}+\frac{1}{4^2}+...=\zeta(2)$ - $\frac{\pi^4}{90}=1+\frac{1}{2^4}+\frac{1}{3^4}+\frac{1}{4^4}+...=\zeta(4)$ - Buffon’s needle - 長度l針與相距1的直線香交的機率為何? - $P(m\le0.5~l~cos\theta)=\frac{2l}{\pi}$ - $\pi$是無理數 - $tanx=\frac{x}{1-\frac{x^2}{3-\frac{x^2}{5-\frac{x^2}{...}}}}$ - x是有理數,則tanx是無理數。 - tanx是有理數,則x是無理數。 - $\pi^2$是無理數,因此$\pi$是無理數 - $e^\pi$是無理數 - $e+\pi,~~~e\cdot\pi,~~~\frac{e}{\pi},~~~\pi^e$不知道是否為有理數 - $e^{i\pi}+1=0$ - 集合比大小 - $|R|\le|S|如果存在從R到S的一對一函數$ - $|R|=|S|~if~|R|\le|S|~and~|S|\le|R|$ - $|R|<|S|~if~|R|\le|S|~and~|R|\ne|S|$ - $B=C/\{P\}$ - $|B|=|C|因為|B|\le|C|且|C|\le|B|$ - 可數無限 - 跟自然數的大小一樣 - 質數,偶數,有理數 - 電腦有解的問題個數 - 不可數無限 - 跟自然數的大小不同 - 無理數, 實數, 複數 - 電腦注定無解的問題個數 - **實數是不可數集合**:對角線證法 - 相差5 - $0.999...=1$ - 最小的無窮基數$\aleph_0=|N|=\beth_0$ - 第二小的無窮基數$\aleph_1$ - 第三小的無窮基數$\aleph_2$ - 幂集$2^S=\{R\subseteq S\}$ - 如果S有限,則$|2^S|=2^{|S|}$ - $|S|<|2^S|$ - 如果S有限,則$|S|<2^{|S|}=2^{|S|}$ - $對s\in S,\{s\}是2^S的成員$ - $\beth_0=|N|$ - $\beth_1=|2^N|$ - $\beth_2=|2^{2^N}|$ - 連續統假設 Continuum Hypothesis(CH) - $|R|=\aleph_1$ - ZFC集合論公設 - 外延、正規、分類 - 配對、聯集、替代 - 無窮、幂集、良序、選擇 - 羅素悖論 - $R=\{S:S\notin S\}$ - $S\notin S$ 的例子 - $S=\phi$ - $S=\{1,2\}$ - $S=\{1,\{S\}\}$ - $S\in S$ 的例子 - $S=\{S,1,2\}$ - $S=\{S,\{S\}\}$ - $S=\{R~is~a~set\}$ - $|2^S|\le|S|$ 違反 $|S|<|2^S|$ - 並不是把任意一些『東西』收集起來就是集合,可能not well defined。 - ZFC集合論公設,是目前最普遍被接受的公設組合 - 希爾伯特旅館悖論 - 可數無限多個房間的旅館 - 有限個新客人 - $1\rightarrow 2,2\rightarrow 3,3\rightarrow 4,...$ - 無限個新客人 - $1\rightarrow 2,2\rightarrow 4,3\rightarrow 6,...$ - 無限客車每輛有無限客人 - 第i輛車,安排在 $p^n$房間,其中p是第i+1質數 - 網球悖論 - 在1/2分鐘,依序丟入兩球,拿走一球 - 在1/4分鐘,依序丟入兩球,拿走一球 - 在1/8分鐘,依序丟入兩球,拿走一球 - ... - 如果每次拿走的球,是最晚丟入的,則袋子裡有無窮多球 - 如果每次拿走的球,是最早丟入的,則袋子沒有球 - 如果每次拿走的球,是隨機的,**則袋子沒有球** - 一號球在袋子機率為0 - 二號球在袋子機率為0... - 死神悖論 - 0.999999… = 1,差距不存在所以相等 - 致死致命物不存在所以安全 - 在(0,1)之中放可數無窮多的致命物,依序放於$1/2^n$ - 從0的右邊出現然後左移,必定會碰到某個致命物 - 從0的左邊出現然後右移,**不會碰到致死致命物** - 假設最先碰到的致命物為$1/2^k$ - 但應該會更先碰到$1/2^{k+1}$,矛盾 ## 無理之理一 - 有理數和無理數有稠密性 - 代數數(algebraic):有理係數多項式的根。 - 超越數(transcendental):其他。 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/oEqym6J.png) - 代數數(algebraic) - 包含了三大類 - 所有的有理數 - 部分的無理實數 - 部分的複數 - 問題:代數數可不可數? - 整係數多項式可數,所以代數數可數 - 超越數(transcendental) - 1.劉維爾Joseph Liouville - 第一個證明超越數存在 - 1844證明了$\sum\frac{1}{10^{n!}}是超越數$ - 小數點後第$1!,2!,3!$...是1,其他是0 - 2.埃爾米特Charles Hermite - 1874證明出e是超越數 - 伴隨運算子 - 3.馮林德曼Ferdinand von Lindemann - 1882證明π是超越數 - 化圓為方是不可能的 - 三大幾何難題 - 三等分角:給出任意一個角θ,求作一角等於θ/3。 - 倍立方體:求作一立方體,使其體積等於已知立方體體積的二倍。 - 化圓為方:求作一正方形,使其面積等於一已知圓的面積。 - Pierre Wantzel - 1837年證明三等分角與倍立方體無法以尺規作圖完成 - 帕普斯 - 著有【數學彙編】 - 質疑歐幾里得的作圖法沒有根據: - 「怎知相交的圓一定有交點?」 - 規矩數 - 可以用圓規直尺畫出來的長度 - 規矩數一定是代數數 - 化圓為方不可能 - 坑洞 - 有理數Q有洞,如$\sqrt{2}$ - 有理數與無理數聯集起來無洞,稱為實數 - 實數R又稱為:continuum連續統。 - 戴德金Richard Dedekind - 高斯的關門弟子,黎曼的好朋友 - 史上第一個用有理數來定義實數的方法 - **戴德金切割** : 有理數子集 $L$滿足(每個切割對應實數) - 1.不空不滿 - 2.向左封閉 - 3.無最大值 - $R=Q$\ $L$ 有最小元素的切割,對應到有理數 - $L:\{q\in Q|q<0.1\},R:\{q\in Q|q\ge 0.1\}$ - $R=Q$\ $L$ 最小元素不存在的切割,對應到無理數 - $L:\{q\in Q|q^2<2\},R:\{q\in Q|q^2\ge 2\}$ - 切割一些定義 - $L_0=Q^-=\{q\in Q|q<0\}$ - $L_1=\{q\in Q|q<1\}$ - $-L=\{q\in Q|q<-r\}$ - $L_1<L_2\leftrightarrow L_1\subsetneq L_2$ - 此外有以下性質 - $L+L_0=L$ - $L\cdot L_1=L$ - $L_1+L_2=\{q_1+q_2|q_1\in L_1,q_2\in L_2\}$ - $L_1-L_2=L_1+(-L_2)$ - 實數集合大小:$|R|=\beth_1$ - $|R|\le|2^Q|=\beth_1$ - 因為每個實數可以用一個有理數的子集合來表示。 - $\beth_1=|2^N|\le2|R|=|R|$ - 因為任何$2^N$裡的元素,可以用$[0,1)$中的二進位數來表達。 - 一些集合大小比較 - 整數 $\beth_0$ - 整數切割 $\beth_0$ - 有理數 $\beth_0$ - 有理數切割 $\beth_1$ ## 無理之理 怪怪實數 - [0,1]中的有理數 - $\frac{\beth_0}{\beth_1}=0$ - [0,1]中實數長度為1 - [0,1]中有理數長度為0 - 目標:找一個[0,1]子集合\$ , 使得 |\$|=$\beth_1$ 且 \$ 的長度為0 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/7kOQT6L.png) - 1.長度為0,因為每次長度變成原本的2/3 - 2.|\$|=$\beth_1$,因為剩下的數恰好為,三進位表示法只有0和2的小數 ## 無理之理 怪怪等比級數 - $\frac{1}{1-r}=1+r+r^2+r^3+...$ - 等比級數證明 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/jImNmUy.png) - 奇怪的性質 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/O77xKhl.png) - 懷疑人生三等式 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/ygQEvPg.png) - 等式一:切薩羅收斂 - 兩個收斂的無窮級數相乘之後雖然未必收斂但必定是切薩羅收斂。 - $(1-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{4}}+...)(1-\frac{1}{\sqrt{2}}+\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}-\frac{1}{\sqrt{4}}+...)$發散但切薩羅收斂。 - 等式二: - $1-2+3-4+5-6+...=(1-1+1-1+1-...)^2=\frac{1}{4}$ - 等式三: - ![](https://i.imgur.com/pHRadwa.png) - 因此 $1+2+3+4+5+...=-\frac{1}{12}$ - 計程車數 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/0pEyHlN.png) - Srinivasa Ramanujan 拉馬努金1887-1920 - Godfrey Harold Hardy 哈代1877-1947 ## 黎曼zeta函數 - $\{x\in R:0<|x|<1\}:f(x)=\frac{1}{1-x}$ - $\{z\in C:z\ne1\}:g(z)=\frac{1}{1-z}$ - $\{r\in R:r>1\}:h(r)=\sum\frac{1}{n^r}$ - $\{r\in C:r\ne1\}:\zeta(r)=\sum\frac{1}{n^r}$ - $\zeta(-1)=-\frac{1}{12}$ - $\zeta(2)=\frac{\pi^2}{6}$ - $\zeta(4)=\frac{\pi^4}{90}$ - $\zeta(3)\sim1.202056$,阿培里常數,是無理數,不知是否超越 - $\zeta(1^+)=\infty$ - $\zeta(1^-)=-\infty$ - $\zeta(2n)=\frac{b}{a}\pi^{2n}$,必定是無理數 - $\zeta(2n+1)$,不知是否為無理數 - 黎曼函數定義: - ![](https://i.imgur.com/P1XN1yy.png) - $\{r\in C:r\ne1\}:\zeta(r)=\sum\frac{1}{n^r}$ - $\zeta(5),\zeta(7),\zeta(9),\zeta(11)$,有一個無理數 - $\zeta(5),\zeta(7),~...~,\zeta(69)$,有兩個無理數 - **黎曼猜想**:$\zeta(z)=0\leftrightarrow$ - 1.$z=-2n$ - 2.$z=\frac{1}{2}+yi$ - 等價於:![](https://i.imgur.com/CEsUnc4.png) - 3個隨機正整數互值的機率=$\prod(1-\frac{1}{p^3})$ - 4個隨機正整數互值的機率=$\prod(1-\frac{1}{p^4})$ - Gelfond Schneider Theorem - ${非0、1代數數}^{非有理代數數}:是超越數$ - $e^\pi=(-1)^{-i}:是超越數$ - 解析拓延 analytic continuation - 拓延(extension):擴大定義域,不改變原本取值 - 解析(analytic):可以用定義域中每個點,及其鄰居開區間,和某些係數,來描述此函數 - 尤拉猜想: - $a_1^n+...+a_{n-1}^n\ne b^n~~~n\ge2$ - 是錯的,存在n=4, 5, 7的反例 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/23G8E9c.png) - 費馬最後定理: - $x^n+y^n\ne z^n~~~n\ge3$ ## 多邊形、多面體 - 針線販謎題:把正三角形切成四個多邊形,然後重新組合成正四邊形? - 等分解(equidecomposition) - 把兩個多面體(polytope),切割成有限個兩兩全等(congruent)的多面體 - 等補貼(equicomplementation) - 兩個多面體分別黏上有限個兩兩全等的多面體,使得黏好之後的兩個多面體擁有「等分解」. - 二維多邊形 - 等分解 $\leftrightarrow$ 等補貼 $\leftrightarrow$ 等面積 - 三維多面體 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/cqlPLEr.png) - 引理零 (月逆引理) - $\begin{array}ABx\ge b\\~~~x\ge1\end{array}$ - 整係數有實數解 $\rightarrow$ 有有理數解 - 引理一 (錐體引理) - $\begin{array}AAx=0\\~~~x>0\end{array}$ - 整係數有實數解 $\rightarrow$ 有整數解 - 引理二 (珍珠引理) - 多面體PQ等分解:可以assign正整數到每一個segment使得一一對應 - 引理三 (夾角引理) - 多面體PQ等分解:雙面角滿足![](https://i.imgur.com/pcK75ND.png) - 引理四 (只欠東風) - $\frac{1}{\pi}arccos\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}$ 是無理數 - 雙面角(dihederal angle) - ![](https://i.imgur.com/bRxmT4J.png):$\frac{\pi}{2}$ - ![](https://i.imgur.com/vT1aehu.png):$arccos\frac{1}{3}$ - ![](https://i.imgur.com/DNi2GKB.png):$\frac{\pi}{2}*3~~~、~~~\frac{\pi}{4}*2~~~、~~~\frac{\pi}{3}*1$ - ![](https://i.imgur.com/tZ0HaY5.png):$arccos\frac{1}{\sqrt{3}}、~~~\frac{\pi}{2}$ ## 塗色問題 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/PizktR4.png) - chromatic number$\chi(G)$:至少要幾個顏色才夠 - $\chi(G)\le|V|$ - 雙色 - P問題 - 三色 - NP問題 - NP hard - 四色 - 1976:平面圖必有$\chi(G)\le4$:電腦結果 - 六色 - n-m+r=2 - 1.數學歸納法 - 2.T的邊數n-1,T'的邊數r-1,總和為m - 平面圖必有$\chi(G)\le6$ - n點的平面圖,必存在一點擁有$\le5$鄰居 - $m\le3n-6$ - $2m\le6n-12$ - By induction - 五色 - 五色引理 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/9y0K1o6.png) - ![](https://i.imgur.com/X51603m.png)![](https://i.imgur.com/WfKPig1.png) - 五色定理 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/IQ2XJqw.png)

    Import from clipboard

    Paste your markdown or webpage here...

    Advanced permission required

    Your current role can only read. Ask the system administrator to acquire write and comment permission.

    This team is disabled

    Sorry, this team is disabled. You can't edit this note.

    This note is locked

    Sorry, only owner can edit this note.

    Reach the limit

    Sorry, you've reached the max length this note can be.
    Please reduce the content or divide it to more notes, thank you!

    Import from Gist

    Import from Snippet

    or

    Export to Snippet

    Are you sure?

    Do you really want to delete this note?
    All users will lose their connection.

    Create a note from template

    Create a note from template

    Oops...
    This template has been removed or transferred.
    Upgrade
    All
    • All
    • Team
    No template.

    Create a template

    Upgrade

    Delete template

    Do you really want to delete this template?
    Turn this template into a regular note and keep its content, versions, and comments.

    This page need refresh

    You have an incompatible client version.
    Refresh to update.
    New version available!
    See releases notes here
    Refresh to enjoy new features.
    Your user state has changed.
    Refresh to load new user state.

    Sign in

    Forgot password
    or
    Sign in via Google Sign in via Facebook Sign in via X(Twitter) Sign in via GitHub Sign in via Dropbox Sign in with Wallet
    Wallet ( )
    Connect another wallet

    New to HackMD? Sign up

    By signing in, you agree to our terms of service.

    Help

    • English
    • 中文
    • Français
    • Deutsch
    • 日本語
    • Español
    • Català
    • Ελληνικά
    • Português
    • italiano
    • Türkçe
    • Русский
    • Nederlands
    • hrvatski jezik
    • język polski
    • Українська
    • हिन्दी
    • svenska
    • Esperanto
    • dansk

    Documents

    Help & Tutorial

    How to use Book mode

    Slide Example

    API Docs

    Edit in VSCode

    Install browser extension

    Contacts

    Feedback

    Discord

    Send us email

    Resources

    Releases

    Pricing

    Blog

    Policy

    Terms

    Privacy

    Cheatsheet

    Syntax Example Reference
    # Header Header 基本排版
    - Unordered List
    • Unordered List
    1. Ordered List
    1. Ordered List
    - [ ] Todo List
    • Todo List
    > Blockquote
    Blockquote
    **Bold font** Bold font
    *Italics font* Italics font
    ~~Strikethrough~~ Strikethrough
    19^th^ 19th
    H~2~O H2O
    ++Inserted text++ Inserted text
    ==Marked text== Marked text
    [link text](https:// "title") Link
    ![image alt](https:// "title") Image
    `Code` Code 在筆記中貼入程式碼
    ```javascript
    var i = 0;
    ```
    var i = 0;
    :smile: :smile: Emoji list
    {%youtube youtube_id %} Externals
    $L^aT_eX$ LaTeX
    :::info
    This is a alert area.
    :::

    This is a alert area.

    Versions and GitHub Sync
    Get Full History Access

    • Edit version name
    • Delete

    revision author avatar     named on  

    More Less

    Note content is identical to the latest version.
    Compare
      Choose a version
      No search result
      Version not found
    Sign in to link this note to GitHub
    Learn more
    This note is not linked with GitHub
     

    Feedback

    Submission failed, please try again

    Thanks for your support.

    On a scale of 0-10, how likely is it that you would recommend HackMD to your friends, family or business associates?

    Please give us some advice and help us improve HackMD.

     

    Thanks for your feedback

    Remove version name

    Do you want to remove this version name and description?

    Transfer ownership

    Transfer to
      Warning: is a public team. If you transfer note to this team, everyone on the web can find and read this note.

        Link with GitHub

        Please authorize HackMD on GitHub
        • Please sign in to GitHub and install the HackMD app on your GitHub repo.
        • HackMD links with GitHub through a GitHub App. You can choose which repo to install our App.
        Learn more  Sign in to GitHub

        Push the note to GitHub Push to GitHub Pull a file from GitHub

          Authorize again
         

        Choose which file to push to

        Select repo
        Refresh Authorize more repos
        Select branch
        Select file
        Select branch
        Choose version(s) to push
        • Save a new version and push
        • Choose from existing versions
        Include title and tags
        Available push count

        Pull from GitHub

         
        File from GitHub
        File from HackMD

        GitHub Link Settings

        File linked

        Linked by
        File path
        Last synced branch
        Available push count

        Danger Zone

        Unlink
        You will no longer receive notification when GitHub file changes after unlink.

        Syncing

        Push failed

        Push successfully