# AP Enviornmental Science

[](https://hackmd.io/gmBpZKxBQxaYNX-Yxfd90g)

## Chapter 3
### 3.2 K-Selected & R-selected species

| K Species | R Species |
| -------- | -------- |
| Tend to be Larger in size | Tend to be small
Have fewer offspring | Have many offspring|
|Expend lots of energy for each offspring| Spend little energy on their offspring|
|Mature after many years of parental care; have long life spans| Maure early and have much shorter life spans|
|| |

---

- Many species have reproductive strategies that are not uniquely r or k selected.
- Think of it as a continuum.

Example: Sea Turtles have traits of both r-selected and k-selected species. They have **both** a long lifespan and they also abandon their eggs.

K-Selected species are more adversly effected by invasive species.
- K-selected often have few children, so a death of an offspring would be far more drastic and serious than the loss of one r-selected offspring.

***Survivorship Curve***
A line that displays the relative survival rates of a cohort in a population, from birth to the maximum age reached by any one cohort member.


~ K-selected species follow a Type I and Type II curve whereas an r-selected species will usually follow a Type III curve

---

### 3.4 Carrying Capcity
Carrying capacity can be defined as a species' average population size in a particular habitat.
- When a population exceeds its carrying capacity, overshoot can occur.
- There are enviornmental impacts of population overshoot, including resource depletion.

---
~ Logisitc Growth is more reasonable because there are only a finite amount of resources in an ecosystem to support a specific species.

**FRQ Practice:**
1. Identify one characteristic of a K-strategist and explain how the characteristic you identified can make these mammals prone to extinction.

One major characteristic of a K-strategist wioud be that of the amount of offspring they produce (which us usually extremely low). This can cause these species to be far more prone to extinction because their fewer offspring can be killed and thin the species population much more easily.

2. Identify and disucss two conservation strategies that could be implemented to prevent the extinction of large terrestrial mammals such as the African elephat or snow leopard.

One conservation strategy to prevent the extinction of large terrestrial mammals could be to further protect their habitat and ecosystem so it does not interfere in their already more fragile reproductive cycle. Similarly we can also help by bringing some into captivity to help them reproduce easier without any outside factors to worry about.

---

### 3.5 Population Growth and Resource Availablility

Resource availability is always finite and scales over time.

When the resources needed are abundant, the population will usually accelerate.

---

### 3.6 Age Structure Diagrams
Population growth rates can be interpreted from age structure diagrams by the shape of the structure.


Large youth population often equals a rapidly increasing population (high birth rate).

---

### 3.7 Total Fertility Rate
The **Total Fertility Rate** (TFR) is the averate number of children born to women of childbearing age in a population.


~ To halt global pop
ulation growth, TFR must drop to 2.1 (higher than 2 in case some die before reproducing).

What affects the **Total Fertility Rate?**
- Age of when the mother had their first child
- Educational opportunities for females
- Access to family planning
- Government Acts and policies

If a fertility rate is at replacement levels, the population is considered relatively stable.

---

### 3.8 Human Population Dynamics
If the human population is growing or declining, is affected by
- birth rates
- infant mortality rates
- overall deaths
- access to family planning
- access to good nutrition
- access to education
- postponement of marriage

Factors limiting global human population include:
- earths carrying capacity
- food supply
- other resources

Population growth can be affected by:
- Density Dependant Factors
- Factors whose effects on the size of growth or a population vary with the population density.
- Overcrowding is a common factor.
- Access to clean water & air.
- Disease transmission and territory size.
- Density Independant Factors
- Factors that affect the size of a population independant or regardless of the population density.
- Major storms, fires, heat waves, and droughts are all consdiered density independant factors.

*Approximating Doubling Time*
~ The rule of 70 states that dividing the number 70, by the percentage population growth rate is approximately the populations doubling time.


### 3.9 Demographic Transition
The demographic transition refers to the transition from high to lower brith rates and the development of humans during that process.


> Charateristics of developing countries include higher infant mortality rates and more children in the workforce than developed countries.

---

## Chapter 5:
### 5.2 Clearcutting
Clearcutting is a timber harvesting practice where most trees in an area are all harvested at the same time.

**The Pro's and Con's of clearcutting:**

| Pro's | Con's |
| -------- | -------- |
| It can create wide open spaces which Dug Fir's need to grow and thrive. | Can ruin cultural grounds and hunting areas. |--------|--------|
|Can be more efficent, and create less disturbances with roading, and runnoff.| Can create deadzones in the forest.|

Can cause the soil and stream tempatures in the area where clearcutting occurs to rise, with more sedament in bodies of water too because of erosion.

Sustainable forestry:
Methods for mitigating deforestation include:
- reforestation
- using and buying wood harvested by ecologically sustaiable forestry methods
- reusing wood
Methods to protect forests from pathogens and insects include:
- integrated pest management
- removal of affected trees

### 5.5 Irrigation Methods
>See assignment [here](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1NyNtl5fnVUbLu7GnF0ps0O9sDApbhFDWX6BLcGNPpmI/edit?usp=sharing) on Irrigation Terms.

Groundwater is one of the best sources of freshwater when local streams and rivers are not available. Can be run dry quicky based on overuse versus its natural rate of of replenishment.

See [this article](https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-ogallala-aquifer/) on the Ogallala Aquifer and its relation to human use. Along with our misuse of the aquifer over time as a slowly renewing resource.

Major takeaways from this article:

- The overuse of this aquifer has lead to severe depletion in certain parts of teh country; a resource which will not be replenished for more than 6000 years at the current pace of depletion.
- Pumping technology has been the leading cause of this drastic decline, which new and far superior tools, it allows for this overuse to not only be expidited, but also allow for the increased irresponsible short term need for groundwater.
- A solution could be dryland farming, where farmers plant crops that do not require such extensive watering, and can be planted without plowing, leading to far less soil erosion over time as well.

### 5.7 Meat Production Methods

CAFO: Concentrated Animal Feeding Opertaions

## Chapter 6: Energy Resources and Consumption
**3 Types of Energy Used:**
- Space Heading
- Water Heating
- Space Cooling

## Chapter 7:
---
### Introduction to Air Pollution

Coal combustion releases air pollutants:

- Carbon dioxide
- Sulfur dioxide
- Toxic metals
- Particulates

### 7.2 Photochemical Smog:

Photochemical smog is formed when nitrogen oxides & volatile organic hydrocarbons react with heat and sunlight to produce a variety of pollutants.
Many environmental factors affect the formation of photochemical smog.

---
- Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs), such as formaldehyde and gasoline, evaporate or sublimate at room temperature.
- Trees are a natural source of VOCs.
- Photochemical smog often forms in urban areas
- because of the large number of motor vehicles there.
- Photochemical smog can harm human health in several ways,
- including causing respiratory problems and eye irritation.

### 7.6 Air Pollution and Cars

Cars Catalytic Converter:

See [this video](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HADOcrcMikA) on how Catalytic Converters work.

---
- Way to Decrease Air Pollution
- Reduce your use of fossil fuels in Transportation
- Drive less, carpool more, take the bus
- Get a new car- electric or more fuel efficient
- Reduce your use of Fossil Fuels from electricity
- Turn off more lights, computer and tv.
- Turn down water heater
- Get solar panels
- Line dry, air dry clothes.

---
Wetlands