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    --- tags: 因果革命 (The Book of WHY) --- # 因果階梯 (The Ladder of Causation) ## 前言 我們時常會遇到不同的科學問題 - A藥對病人是否有用? - 新的稅改制度是否刺激消費? - 因為公雞叫太陽才升起嗎? - 抽菸是否會危害健康? 然而在統計上相關並不是因果(Correlation is not causation) e.g. 公雞叫和日出有關聯,但他們並沒有因果關係。因此我們需要重新定義,什麼才是因果,而非相關。 ## 符號語言 1. 因果圖 (causal diagram) 2. 機率語言: 在統計上 $$ P(L|A) $$ 代表觀察到患者服用藥物$A$時,患者壽命為$L$的機率。 然而如果我們想知道某種藥物$A$,對壽命($L$)的影響,可以用機率表示 $$ P(L|do(A)) $$ 換句話說,讓病人服用藥物$A$,存活$L$年的機率為何?在這邊我們借助$do(A)$數學符號來確定觀察到的壽命$L$之變化源自藥物本身,不會受到其他可能縮短或延長壽命的因素干擾。 ## 反事實(Counterfactual) 舉例而言,假設小明服用藥物($A$),結果病逝,那我們該如何探討逝這個藥物$A$造成了小明的死亡。這時,我們假設有一個和小明完全一樣的雙胞胎,他沒有吃藥,那他會不會活下來?因為並沒有另一個完全一樣的小明,因此我們稱之為反事實。 ## 因果階梯 (The Ladder of Causation) 因果可以分為三個層級,每一個層級都具備了前一階段缺少的能力。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/7obD51w.jpg) - 關聯 : 在第一個層級我們從觀察中尋找規律,而且必須依據被動的觀察結果進行預測。這也是統計學賴以為生的問題,例如:客人買了牙膏又買牙線的機率為何?我們先蒐集所有客戶的資料,選出其中買了牙膏者的資料,再針對買牙膏的族群,算出同時購買牙線的比例。整個比例稱之為條件機率,可計算「購買牙膏」和「購買牙線」的相關程度,並可用$P$(牙膏|牙線)表示之。但統計學本身並沒辦法分辨何只是因,何只為果。但在行銷經理看來並不重要,優異的預測不需要很好的解釋。換句話說,現今的機器學習甚至是深度學習大多在第一層。舉例來說,如果自動駕駛程式希望汽車對新的狀況作出反應,就必須明確地加入新反應。機器不會自動判斷拿個威士忌的行人聽到喇叭聲是否會有反應。在因果階梯第一層運作的系統,幾乎必然缺乏彈性和適應性。 - 介入 : 如果我們試圖改變世界,就必須登上第二層級。例如,「如果我們把牙膏價格加倍,牙線銷售量會有什麼變化」。這需要資料無法提供的另一種知識。介入的層級高於關聯,因為它不只是觀察,還必須改變現狀。我們可以把這類的問題改寫成$P$(牙線|do(牙膏)),透過查詢想知道如果我們改變牙膏的價格,則我們以某個價格賣出牙線的機率為何?日常生活中我們也經常「介入」,例如服用阿斯匹靈藥來解除頭痛,就是介入一個變項(體內阿斯匹靈含量)來改變另一個變項(頭痛狀態)。如果我們對阿斯匹靈的因果看法正確,則「結果」變項會因而從「頭痛」變成「頭不痛」。 - 反事實 : 但推理仍然無法回答所有的問題。我們或許會好奇,我的頭現在不痛了,但是是為什麼呢?是我服用的阿斯匹靈嗎?還是吃的食物?亦或是天氣影響呢?這些查詢帶我們登上因果階梯最高的反事實層級。因為要回答這個問題,必須要回朔到以前改變歷史,然後問「如果當時我沒有服用阿斯匹靈,會出現什麼情況?」 :::info Remark: 階梯的第一層探討了眼前的世界;第二層探討可見的全新世界;第三層則探討了看不見的世界(因為他與我們看見的世界相反)。 ::: ## 機率與因果 要理解==因果性無法簡化成機率相當不容易==。有一部份哲學家試圖運用「機率提高」的概念,以機率來定義因果。也就是說如果$X$可以提高$Y$發生的機率,則可說$X$是$Y$的原因。 導致這個概念失敗的原因,主要在於表達方式。統計學家大都以條件機率來表示「$X$使$Y$的機率提高」,寫成 $$ P(Y|X) > P(Y) $$ 但是這樣的解釋是錯的,因為「提高」是因果概念,代表$X$對$Y$的因果影響力。然而$P(Y|X) > P(Y)$這個表示式只提到觀察,代表「如果我們看見$X$,則$Y$的機率提高」。$Y$的機率提高或許源於其他理由,例如其他變項($Z$)是$X$和$Y$兩者的共同原因等。如果把機率提高準則套用在表面事實,假設有一筆資料觀察到當小學生的鞋子尺寸變大時,智力測驗分數也會變高,我們一定會斷定鞋子尺寸提高導致智力測驗分數變高。就這個例子而言,我們可解釋這個現象,因為年齡變大,使得鞋子尺寸變大,小學生也因為年齡變大而智力測驗變高分。這使哲學家退回第一步,試圖消除「其他原因」。 而$X$和$Y$的共通因子(或稱干擾因子),是哲學家最頭痛的問題。哲學家努力依據背景因素(干擾因子)來修正定義,產生準則 $$ P(Y|X,K=k) > P(Y|K=k) $$ 其中K是某些背景變項,這個準則就適用在鞋子尺寸的例子。舉例來說如果只看到年齡是$10$歲的小學生($K=10$),會發現鞋子尺寸和智力測驗變高分並沒有剩餘關聯。必須比較年齡為10歲和4歲的日子,才會出現機率提高的假象。 不過,一直沒有哲學家能提出可接受的通用答案,來回答「哪些變項必須納入背景變項組$K$,並達成修正依據?」理由很簡單,共同創造也是因果概念,因此無法寫出機率公式。哲學家爭論$K$的正確內容二十多年,完全沒有進展。在==第四章==將會提出正確的準則。

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