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    有空記得重新整理 # 如何改變肉的質地 相關: - [關於蛋白質等電點](/MY0hFAolTqijf2Qqrlo41g) - [屠體死後變化-以魚為例](/QcGhENAITKupSAkyMhWOlg) - [熟成大略](/3iQM-sB0Q1Cnyq6cB2SJMQ) ## 鹽分效用 > [Effect of NaCl Concentration and Cooking Temperature on the Color and Pigment Characteristics of Presalted Ground Chicken Breasts](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5960837/) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/SymTQaWhT.png) 這篇在談適當濃度的鹽水,是如何對肌肉保水、顏色、質地做改善的,前面都在講化學機轉跟原理,但後面就是談實驗結果,其實單看結論就很實用了 1~3%鹽水泡7天 可以明顯看到鹽水醃製 對於烹調後保持都有明顯的提升 另外有一篇是講醃製12小時的用6~8% 所以可以根據時間適當調整濃度,但超過10%就會開始脫水 所以最好就是在2%~8%之間 需根據時間做選擇 <!-- 然後煮的時間不要太久 讓中心溫度太高導致蛋白質熱變性太多 就能吃到嫩嫩的雞胸肉了 --> ## 同樣溫度的烹調 醃製過後的顏色看起來較生 > 烹飪對適口性的影響 > [The Effect of Cooking on Palatability](https://www.woolwise.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/MEAT-418-518-07-T-25.pdf) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/SJCjVkBSC.png) pH越高(或是越偏離等電點的) 肌紅蛋白色素變化程度越低(詳細機轉有空記得了解) 導致在同樣溫度下 肉看起來會比較紅、比較生 <!-- 最明顯的範例就是醃製火腿(亞硝酸鹽pH約為9) --> ## 肉質地的預處理 <!-- 1. 提高蛋白質的保水(鹽水、磷酸鹽 使其遠離[等電點](/MY0hFAolTqijf2Qqrlo41g)) 2. 避免蛋白質因為熱變性收縮太多(控制加熱時間 達到適當的滅菌溫度與時間就取出) --> <!-- 少量鹽主要是鹽溶的作用: 鹽溶(Salting in)是一種物理現象。當一溶液中同時含有蛋白質和離子化合物,提高離子化合物的濃度可提高該蛋白質的溶解度。(是鹽溶還鹽析還有待查證) 1. 肉接觸到適當濃度的鹽水,鹽融於水中釋出Na+或Cl-離子,而Na水和性較高使得Cl-比較會去結合蛋白質(另一種說法是Cl較容易跟蛋白質結合),導致蛋白質的淨電荷(負電)變多,使蛋白質分子之間的互斥力提高,遠離等電點,使蛋白質結構展開,來增加蛋白質溶解度。 2. 使得蛋白質間比較有空隙容納更多水分子並與之結合。 3. 加上一開始的細胞滲透作用,使溶液從外部滲透進來,最終影響肌肉蛋白的性質,因為保水度提高,雖然加熱收縮導致水分流失,也能增加烹飪後的含水。 --> ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/SyYPLVF3T.png) 而很多肉類嫩化保水常見的兩種為: 1. 遠離肉類[蛋白質等電點](/MY0hFAolTqijf2Qqrlo41g)(約pH4~6)提高持水: 鹽、鹼性物質 2. 剪切蛋白質結構: 蛋白酶,像是各類酵素如嫩精(木瓜酵素)、熟成(鈣蛋白酶等) > 雖然鹽可以透過滲透壓脫水,也可以使其遠離等電點提高持水,但會根據不同的鹽量,來決定由哪個機轉為主導,像是利用大量鹽(略指>10%)做脫水醃製 跟 利用少量鹽提高持水(<10%),帶來的效果不太一樣 > 而酵素作用方式是剪切蛋白質 所以雖然會嫩 但會沒甚麼彈性 降低口感 而且可能會降低風味(剪切後流失水分) 嫩精的參考用量應以原料重量的0.5%左右為宜 <!-- 通常加鹼性物質的加工肉品 會被貼上不好的標籤 是因為用鹼性物質來嫩化的話 吃起來會有鹼味 雖然不影響健康 但不好吃 為了掩蓋這味道 會加重調味 這才是影響健康的原因 感覺食品加工物也還好 不愧是海克斯科技 提高量產 讓食物好吃又便宜 其中一個粒子 巴沙魚 很嫩 一部分因為加了磷酸鹽(鹼性) 讚讚 窮人的魚料理 大量養殖+食品處理的結晶 --> 底下這篇以雞柳條的烹調後重量為比較: - 直接烹飪 77% - 加鹽水是 93% - 磷酸鹽是 119% 磷酸鹽可以讓雞柳條的保水率提高到119% > [Time-dependent marinade absorption and retention, cooking yield, and palatability of chicken filets marinated in various phosphate solutions](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119410456) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/SJHE4pb3p.png) <!-- 所以巴沙魚才會說甚麼磷酸鹽泡發膨脹 --> --- ## 加熱過程的變化 ### 加熱主要原因是去除掉耐溫度的菌 如雞隻養殖過程的沙門氏菌、豬肉條蟲,而基本上下圖資料顯示,沙門氏菌為相對耐溫的 | 烹調溫度 | 沙門氏菌的巴式殺菌時間 | | -------- | ---------------------- | | 60度 | >35min | | 62度 | >13min | | 65度 | >5.4min | | 67.2度 | >1.6min | | 68.3度 | >54.5s | | 70度 | >26.9s | | 72度 | 瞬間 台灣食藥署規範的全熟 | FDA沙門氏菌和其他病原體的建議溫度與時間: > [FSIS Cooking Guideline for Meat and Poultry Products](https://www.fsis.usda.gov/guidelines/2021-0014) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/SJXWE6b3p.png) :::info :::spoiler 加拿大疾管署的舒肥烹飪指南: > [Guidelines for restaurant sous vide cooking safety in British Columbia](http://www.bccdc.ca/resource-gallery/Documents/Guidelines%20and%20Forms/Guidelines%20and%20Manuals/EH/FPS/Food/SVGuidelines_FinalforWeb.pdf) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/Skji3NXrR.png) ::: :::info :::spoiler The International Culinary Center's: > https://www.cookingissues.com/uploads/Low_Temp_Charts.pdf > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/Sy3h8A7BR.png) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/ryHZDA7rA.png) ::: ## 烹調時肌肉組織的收縮 而蛋白質熱變性似乎有幾個階段 1. 38~54的時候 肌球蛋白等與肌肉短邊相關的開始變性 所以會先變細(圖1~2) 2. 65~67 結締組織開始變硬 3. 70~83 肌動蛋白等等 跟長邊相關的開始變性收縮 也就是(圖3) 4. 超過80度後 收縮就變得很急遽 > [The structural basis of cooking loss in beef Variations with temperature and ageing](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0963996916304033) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/By8TEa-h6.png) > 烹飪對適口性的影響 > [The Effect of Cooking on Palatability](https://www.woolwise.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/07/MEAT-418-518-07-T-25.pdf) > ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/HJF7BkHHC.png) 而長邊的收縮明顯是比較激烈的 表示對保水率的影響最大 對比烹飪溫度後 可以發現只要溫度維持在60~70度之間 就可以達到久煮而不柴 因為只讓短邊收縮 但長邊還沒變性太多 而且這區間的溫度與時間 似乎也較為合適作為巴式殺菌 ## 既然加熱要這麼小心翼翼 那為甚麼有些時候燉煮反而更嫩? <!-- 燉煮的問題 查了一陣子比較有頭緒了 --> 久燉不柴 是因為結締組織(筋模、肌腱)、油脂較多的部位,煮化後膠原蛋白產生明膠(介面活性劑)來持有水分與油脂 所以吃起來會軟(感覺脂肪與膠原蛋白潤滑 跟等電點增加保水的口感不太一樣) 如前述在65左右變硬 時間長會開始逐漸明膠化 不過其速度較慢 所以燉煮時肉會先變柴 等結締組織明膠化後再擁有潤滑的口感 但是低溫烹調降低蛋白質收縮、等電點增加持水、蛋白酶剪切、結締組織與油脂帶來的潤滑,雖然都會導致口感變好,但各自效果並不太一樣的,仍須根據需求靈活選擇 如燉煮牛小排: 主要燉煮後透過筋膜與油脂來潤滑失水的肌肉組織 但舒肥牛小排: 則是更進一步 降低肌肉組織的收縮 並透過長時間舒肥來煮化結締組織 更加潤滑軟嫩 但可能也會喪失筋膜獨有的口感 ## 結論: 與口感相關要素 1. 減少肌纖維收縮(溫度控制減少肌纖維收縮) 2. 增加蛋白質的持水能力(鹽、鹼 遠離等電點) 3. 適當分解一些肌纖維,酵素、蛋白酶(如木瓜酵素、生薑蛋白梅、鳳梨酵素、熟成等等) 4. 脂肪、膠原蛋白(明膠)來代替流失的水分(應該是明膠作為介面活性劑對於水分與油脂的保持) 對應至手法: - 透過鹽、鹼、酶醃製,都能附加(2)或(3) | 溫度\時間 | 短時間 | 長時間 | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | 低溫 | 擁有(1) | 擁有(1)+(4) | | 高溫 | 失去(1) | 失去(1) 但擁有(4) | 需要根據部位與呈現方式做選擇 ### 肉料理都適用的簡易總結 (目前認為蛋白質都是,只是不同動物的肉,因為生長環境不同而帶有不同的微生物與細菌,加熱溫度有些許差別,此處主要為雞,參考前面舒肥表格) 1. 2~6%鹽水使其保水 (鹽增加蛋白質溶解度,濕醃建議水量為肉重的50%,舒肥水量為重量的4~5倍,減緩溫度變化) 2. 舒肥溫度60~70 遵循上圖表格做巴式殺菌 (最小幅度的蛋白質變性、並處理沙門氏菌等) <!-- 也可以將鹽改為鹽麴 1. 鹽:蛋白質鹽溶與鹽析 2. 麴:相當於嫩精 酵素中帶有剪切相關的蛋白酶 剪斷肉質 --> <!-- 這樣就可以得到水嫩的肉 --> 如果要水嫩又富有風味的肉,大概就是在這樣處裡的基礎上,擦乾並簡單的煎或炙燒,附加反應的顏色與香氣、或是醃製時附加香料 但是濕醃會導致較難上色(梅納反應的相關因素是溫度、水活性、pH),所以可能需要額外風乾等處理,不過乾醃也有相應持水效果,且水分沒那麼多較容易上色,只是沒那麼均勻,適合用在較薄的肉 濕醃>乾醃>>>不處理 > 雖然乾醃表面會有很高的鹽濃度,但隨著水分脫出,表面溶液的濃度會逐漸降低,且比起表面那一點脫水,乾醃後帶來的持水性,仍然比什麼都不做好不少 <!-- 所以雞胸肉 先切片再烹調 會是更好的選擇 比起整塊雞胸可能外層過熟裡面才勉強到溫度 不如直接切片 均勻受熱 以往會覺得整塊才能鎖住肉汁 但應該沒有太大差別 可能只是切片後更容易不小心加熱過度而已 --> <!-- 大概是這樣 為甚麼人類覺得嫩=好吃? 目前的看法是: 只要肉含水高 就不會緊實 好咀嚼 吃起來就會嫩 吃嫩肉的時候 因為肉中含水、油、結締組織多 而肉中的風味物質 都會在咬下的當下隨著流出 所以舌頭上有更多機會被這些風味物質包裹 --> ## References 未整理 [吉尔的小灯塔](https://space.bilibili.com/2013555) [不用舒肥一招做出超完美水煮雞胸肉](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3I73IIDly8Y) 雞腿與肌胸的肌動蛋白熱變性 [Thermal Transitions of Natural Actomyosin from Poultry Breast and Thigh Tissues](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119525305) 氯化鈉濃度和烹調溫度對雞胸肉的顏色影響 [Effect of NaCl Concentration and Cooking Temperature on the Color and Pigment Characteristics of Presalted Ground Chicken Breasts](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5960837/) 短期預鹽醃和鹽含量對熟雞胸肉粉紅色形成的影響 [Effects of Short-Term Presalting and Salt Level on the Development of Pink Color in Cooked Chicken Breasts](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5355589/) 鹽和磷酸鹽溶液預處理冷凍雞胸肉的質地和微觀結構特性 [Texture and microstructure properties of frozen chicken breasts pretreated with salt and phosphate solutions](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119438194) 各種磷酸鹽溶液醃製雞柳的時間依賴性醃料吸收和保留、烹飪產量和適口性 [Time-dependent marinade absorption and retention, cooking yield, and palatability of chicken filets marinated in various phosphate solutions](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0032579119410456) 不同加热条件下牛肉嫩度和保水性的变化及机理 https://www.spkx.net.cn/fileup/HTML/2018-39-1-013.shtml [食品科學](/ryMeAuPdR-y_et0Pz_F1KA)

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