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    # 李宏毅_Linear Algebra Lecture 25: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ###### tags: `Hung-yi Lee` `NTU` `Linear Algebra Lecture` [課程撥放清單](https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLJV_el3uVTsNmr39gwbyV-0KjULUsN7fW) ## Linear Algebra Lecture 25: Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors [課程連結](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RyHRIP8QGg&list=PLJV_el3uVTsNmr39gwbyV-0KjULUsN7fW&index=25) 課程會說明如何系統化的找出一個好的coordinate system ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/5UU3BZ8.png) 如果有一個matrix-$A$、vector-$v$、scalar-$\lambda$,而$Av=\lambda v$,這意味著: 1. $v$為$A$的eigenvector 2. $v$對應的eigenvalue就是$\lambda$ 有兩個重點 * matrix-$A$一定是nxn的matrix * eigenvector並不考慮zero vector ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/ZvEQE19.png) 每一個matrix都對應一個linear function(linear opearator)-$T$,如果$T(v) = \lambda v$,則: * $v$為$T$的eigenvector * $v$對應的eigenvalue就是$\lambda$ * eigenvector並不考慮zero vector ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/RjcF1xZ.png) 這是一個[Shear Transform](https://zh.wikipedia.org/zh-tw/%E9%94%99%E5%88%87)的案例說明: * $T$只改變$x$座標,不改變$y$座標 * 點距離$x$軸愈遠,其變化愈大 * 藍色向量就是一個eigenvector,因為它帶入$T$之後還是自己,其eigenvalue=1 ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/uvsDwtM.png) 假設有一個function,其功用就是對y=(1/2)x做reflection: * 假設有一個vector-$b_1$就在這個函數上,那$T(b_1)=b_1$,這時候這個$b_1$就是eigenvector,其eigenvalue=1 * 假設有一個vector-$b_2$與函數垂直,那$T(b_2)=-b_2$,而$b_2$也是eigenvector,其eigenvalue=-1 ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/UsPLynq.png) 這個範例是將照片放大、縮小的例子。將每個pixel視為座標點,每個座標點都乘上2、或乘上0.5就可以達到放大、縮小的效果。 對Expansion與Compression而言,任意的vector都是eigenvector,但Expansion的eigenvalue為2,而Compression的eigenvalue為0.5。 ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/FSm7Cfv.png) 並非所有的nxn的matrix或linear operator都會有eigenvalues與eigenvectors。舉例來說,Rotation(旋轉),它並不會是自己本身的n倍,任何位置旋轉之後都不會是自己的n倍,因此rotation這個linear operator不存在eigenvalues與eigenvectors。 ### Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors ![](https://i.imgur.com/KXIl7uF.png) 在給定eigenvalue的情況下該如何找出eigenvector? Eigenvalues與Eigenvectors之間的一個關係: * 每一個eigenvector都對應一個唯一的eigenvalue * 但每一個eigenvalue可以對應無窮多的eigenvector 對應同一個eigenvalue的eigenvector是否為subspace?答案是否定的,因為稍早有提過,eigenvector是不存在zero vector。 ### Eigenspace ![](https://i.imgur.com/4C3POzw.png) 假設我們知道matrix-A的eigenvalue-$\lambda$,找出所有對應$\lambda$的eigenvector: * 定義:$Av=\lambda v$,即$Av - \lambda v 0$ * 調整:$Av - \lambda I_n v = 0$ * 提出$v$:$(A - \lambda I_n)v = 0$(matrix-A的對角線值減去$\lambda$) * eigenvectors就是將這個式子的所有solution減去zero vector的集合 * 對應$\lambda$的eigenvector所成的集合就是$A - \lambda I_n$的null space扣掉zero vector,即$Null(A - \lambda I_n) - \left\{ 0 \right\}$ * $\lambda$的eigenspace就是$A - \lambda I_n$的null space + $\left\{ 0 \right\}$ * 並非所有eigenspace的vector都是eigenvector,因為eigenspace包含zero vector * 課程中$\lambda$所對應的eigenspace就是所有對應到$\lambda$的eigenvectors再加上$\left\{ 0 \right\}$(zero vector) ### Check Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/l3tBFAe.png) 如何確定一個scalalr是否為eigenvalue: * 這很簡單,只要確定eigenspace長什麼樣子,如果eigenspace只有zero vector,那它就一定不是,如果有著zero vector以外的東西存在,那它就是eigenvalue * 可以判斷eigenspace的dimension,如果$Null(A - \lambda I_n) = 0$,那就代表它只存在zero vector,那就代表$\lambda$不是eigenvalue * 這要用之前課程提過的檢查subspace的方法來確定,如果$A - \lambda I_n$的vector都是indenpendent,那就代表它的Null space只有zero vector ### Check Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/3Te2QWw.png) 這邊用範例說明如何檢查是否為eigenvalue: * 3 * 首先計算$Null(A - 3 I_2)$,$A$對角線計算,其餘不變 * 空間中畫出,所有在線上的都是eigenvector * 帶入$T$得證,3為matrix-$A$的eigenvalue * 2 * 首先計算$Null(A + 2 I_2)$,$A$對角線計算,其餘不變 * 空間中畫出,所有在線上的都是eigenvector * 帶入$T$得證,-2為matrix-$A$的eigenvalue ### Check Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/XBMj8gL.png) 這邊的問題是確認3是否為matrix-$B$的eigenvalue,如果是,那請找出它的eigenspace的basis: * 首先計算$Null(B - 3 I_3)$,$B$對角線計算,其餘不變 * 檢查$B - 3 I_3$的null space有多大 * 確認column是否為dependent,因存在zero vector,因此為dependent,也因此其null space不會只有zero vector,因此3為$B$的eigenvalue * 又或者可以利用determinant來確認,因為有一個row、column為0,因此其determinant=0,這意味著這個matrix是non-invertible,這種matrix的null space會包含zero vector以外的vector,因此3為$B$的eigenvalue * 計算$B - 3 I_3$的RREF * 寫出其parametric representation,得出其basis,(1, 0, 0; 0, 1, 1),將這兩個vector做linear combination可以得到所有的eigenvector,記得扣掉zero vector ### Looking for Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/WLekRbw.png) 剛才的問題是給定一個eigenvalue來確定是否為eigenvalue,現在是給出一個matrix,找出所有的eigenvalue。 假設某一個scalar-$t$為matrix-$A$的eigenvalue,那它會滿足幾個條件: * 如果$t$是eigenvalue,那就存在一個向量-$v$(非zero vector),其$Av = tv$ * 也就是$Av - tv = 0$,其中$v$(非zero vector) * 也就是$v$乘上identity matrix,這不影響結果,即$(A - t I_n)v=0$,其中$v$(非zero vector) * 也就是$(A - t I_n)v=0$要有多個解,因為最少會有一組zero的解 * 也就是$(A - t I_n)$的column為dependent * 也就是$(A - t I_n)$是non-invertible * 也就是det$(A - t I_n)=0$ 所以我們只要解det$(A - t I_n)=0$就可以找到所有的eigenvalue ### Looking for Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/jsjsPHf.png) 上面給出一個範例,帶入公式,解determinant就可以得到$t=-3$或$t=5$,這邊我們發現到兩個特性: 1. 所有matrix的eigenvalues相乘會得到這個matrix的determinant 2. matrix的trace,即對角線值相加,會等於所有eigenvalues的和 ### Looking for Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/v9WF91I.png) 找出eigenvalues就可以找出它的eigenspace,舉例來說,假設我們已經確定-3就是eigenvalue,即$Ax=-3x$,其$(A + 3I)x = 0$的解即為eigenvalue=-3的eigenspace。 同理,當eigenvalue=5的時候,其$(A-5I)x = 0$的解即為eigenvalue=5的eigenspace ### Looking for Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/a9jheSY.png) 範例是給定一個linear operator,找出這個linear operator的eigenvalue: * 首先寫出這個linear operator的matrix-$A$ * 寫下$det(A-tI_n)=0$的數學式,展開之後就是將matrix-$A$的對角線都減$t$ * 計算其determinant,即$det(A - tI_n) = (-1 - t)^3$ * 得到$t = -1$為其解,即eigenvalue=-1 ### Looking for Eigenvalues ![](https://i.imgur.com/lRlXdKJ.png) 範例說明的是,證明rotation是沒有eigenvalue: * 寫下rotataion這個linear operator背後的matrix * 寫下$det(A-tI_n)=0$的數學式,展開之後就是將matrix-$A$的對角線都減$t$ * 計算其determinant,即$t^2 + 1 = 0$ * 我們發現,這個數學式是沒有實數解的 * 得證,rotation是沒有eigenvalue,或稱沒有實數的eigenvalue,但是有虛數解,不過虛數超過課程範圍,不討論 ### Characteristic Polynomial ![](https://i.imgur.com/yALp2yO.png) 稍早一連串範例所提的$det(A-tI_n)$的這個多項式,又稱為Characteristic Polynomial,而$det(A-tI_n)=0$則稱為Characteristic Equation。 要找出eigenvalue,就是找出characteristic polynomial的根(root),或是找出characteristic equation的解。 ### Characteristic Polynomial ![](https://i.imgur.com/s66GVTZ.png) 在eigenvalue的章節中,RREF的作用並不大,由下面的特性說明。 Characteristic Polynomial的特性: * matrix-A與其RREF-A的characteristic polynomials是不一樣的,因此也會有不一樣的eigen value * 如果兩個matrix是similar,那它們就會有相同的characteristic polynomials,這意味著會有相同的eigenvalue(見簡報證明) * 所謂的similar的matrix,即$B = P^{-1}AP$,當matrix$A$的左右乘上一個matrix-P與其inverse-$P^{-1}$會等於$B$的時候,則$A, B$為similar matrix 證明$det(B-tI) = dep(A-tI)$: * 帶入$AB$之間的關係,即$B = P^{-1}AP$,得到$det(P^{-1}AP)$,而$tI$則帶入$P^{-1}(tI)P$,合併來看則為$det(B-tI) = det(P^{-1}AP - P^{-1}(tI)P)$ * 提出$P^{-1}$與$P$,得到$det(P^{-1}(A-tI)P)$ * determinant matrix相乘會等於先取determinant再相乘,即$det(P^{-1})det(a-tI)det(P)$ * $det(P^{-1})$與$det(P)$是可以消掉,相乘為1 * 得證$det(B-tI) = dep(A-tI)$ 在說明coordinate system的時候提過similar,也就是同一個matrix在兩個不同的coordinate system下看待的結果,雖然看起來是兩個matrix,但其實是同一個。因此可以知道的是,一個matrix在不同的coordinate system下,它的eigenvalue是不變的,但eigenvector是會變的。 ### Characteristic Polynomial ![](https://i.imgur.com/i740OEF.png) 這邊繼續說明Characteristic Polynomial的特性: * 假設你的matrix是nxn,其Characteristic Polynomial的order(degree)也會是n * 這可以從$det(A-tI_n)$來看,以3x3矩陣為例,帶入公式可以發現,對角線一定會是一個未知系數乘上$t$的三次方,也就是n * 一個nxn的矩陣會擁有多少個eigenvalue * 我們已經知道,eigenvalue就是Characteristic Polynomial的root,一個order為n的Characteristic Polynomial,其root最多就是有n個。也就是一個nxn的matrix,其eigenvalue的數量一定小於等於n ### Characteristic Polynomial V.S. Eigenspace ![](https://i.imgur.com/Lle6nCK.png) 對Characteristic Polynomial做因式分解(Factorization),即$det(A-tI_n)=(t-\lambda_1)^{m_1}(t-\lambda_2)^{m_2}...(t-\lambda_k)^{m_k}(... ...)$,每一個$\lambda$都對應一個eigenvalue,每一個eigenvalue都對應一個eigenspace(dimension),其中dimension一定會小於其multiplicity ### Characteristic Polynomial ![](https://i.imgur.com/LySXDwq.png) 這邊繼續說明Characteristic Polynomial的特性: * 如果一個matrix為upper triangular(對角線以下為0的矩陣)或lower triangular,其Characteristic Polynomial就會單純的就是對角線相乘,因此其root即為對角線值,範例來看即為$a, b, c$

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