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    # 2018q1 Homework2 (assessment) contributed by <`ujiet`> ### 第 1 週第 2 題: :::success 給定 B 為 2 的某次方 (power of 2),那麼是否 `A % B` 等價於 `(A & (B - 1))`? `(a)` 是 `(b)` 否 延伸問題: - 為什麼? - 舉出類似的案例並解釋 ::: - 想法:已知在二進位制裡面,當一個數每向右 shift 一個 bit 時,其值相當於除以 2 。 - 因此,當 $A$ 除以 $2^n$ 時,會相當於將 A 向右 shift n 個 bit。 - 而當 $A\ mod\ 2^n$ 時,會相當於將 A 的最右邊 n 個 bit。 ``` e.g. A = 10010111 = 151, B = 00010000 = 16 A % B = 151 % 16 = 7 = 0111 (A 的最右邊 4 個 bit) ``` - 實務上可經由 mask 來得到,理論上若 n = 4 ,將 A 與 00001111 做 and 運算,即可得 A % B , 而所需的 mask,即 00001111 ,可由 (B - 1) 得到。 - 依此類推,由於 $n \in N$ 時皆成立,故 `A % B` 等價於 `(A & (B - 1))`。 - [類似案例 1 - 快速將一個數乗以 7](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/efficient-way-to-multiply-with-7/) ```clike= #include <stdio.h> int multiplyBySeven(unsigned int n) { /* Note the inner bracket here. This is needed because precedence of '-' operator is higher than '<<' */ return ((n<<3) - n); } ``` - 原理:因為 7n = 8n - n,故運用 shift 左移 3 bits 快速得到 8n 後再減去一個 n 即可得。 [類似案例 2 - Swap two nibbles in a byte (nibble 為 4 bits 的區塊)](https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/swap-two-nibbles-byte/) ```clike= #include <stdio.h> unsigned char swapNibbles(unsigned char x) { return ( (x & 0x0F)<<4 | (x & 0xF0)>>4 ); } ``` - 原理: 0x0F = 00001111, 0xF0 = 11110000 - (x & 0x0F) 得到 x 的右邊 4 個 bit,用 <<4 移到左邊,(x & 0xF0) 同理得左邊 4 bit。 - 將上述兩個數做 or 運算即可完成交換。 --- ### 第 2 週第 3 題: :::success 考慮到某些實數的二進位表示形式如同 $0.yyyyy...$ 這樣的無限循環小數,其中 $y$ 是個 $k$ 位的二進位序列,例如 $\frac{1}{3}$ 的二進位表示為 $0.01010101...$ (y = `01`),而 $\frac{1}{5}$ 的二進位表示為 $0.001100110011...$ (y = `0011`),考慮到以下 y 值,求出對應的十進位分數值。 - y = `010011` => $\frac{19}{X1}$ - y = `101` => $\frac{5}{X2}$ - y = `0110` => $\frac{2}{X3}$ ::: - 想法:這種無限循環小數通常都有規則可循,先觀察實際例子看看是否能找出公式。 - 先看第一個例子,已知 $y = 010011$,則 $k = 6$,且二進位表示式 => $0.010011010011...$ - 令欲求的實數為 $x$ ,先試試看將 $x$ 從二進位轉換成十進位的表示法 => $x = (2^{-2}+2^{-5}+2^{-6})+(2^{-8}+2^{-11}+2^{-12})+...$ => $\ \ =(2^{-2}+2^{-5}+2^{-6})(1+2^{-6}+2^{-12}+...)$ => $\ \ =(0.y)(\cfrac{1}{1-2^{-6}}) = (0.y)(\cfrac{1}{1-2^{-k}})$ - 到此已經求出公式,代入 $y$ 和 $k$ ,即可得出答案。將第一題的已知條件代入,得到 => $x = (\cfrac{1}{4}+\cfrac{1}{32}+\cfrac{1}{64})(\cfrac{1}{1-\cfrac{1}{64}})$ => $\ \ = (\cfrac{16}{64}+\cfrac{2}{64}+\cfrac{1}{64})(\cfrac{64}{63}) = \cfrac{19}{63},\therefore X1 = 63$ - 注意最後一個式子,兩個括號裡的 $64$ 消掉了,這顯然不是巧合,再看下一個例子。 - 已知 $y = 101$,$k = 3$,代入公式得到 => $x = (2^{-1}+2^{-3})(\cfrac{1}{1-2^{-3}})$ => $\ \ =(\cfrac{1}{2}+\cfrac{1}{8})(\cfrac{1}{1-\cfrac{1}{8}}) = \cfrac{5}{7},\therefore X2=7$ - 觀察得知,不管是 $X1$ 還是 $X2$,其值都是他們的 $2^{k}-1$,照這個邏輯則 $X3$ 理應是 $2^{4}-1 = 15$ ,但**結果卻是錯誤的**。 - 第三個例子, $y = 0110$,$k = 4$,代入公式得到 => $x = (2^{-2}+2^{-3})(\cfrac{1}{1-2^{-4}})$ => $\ \ =(\cfrac{1}{4}+\cfrac{1}{8})(\cfrac{1}{1-\cfrac{1}{16}})=(\cfrac{4+2}{16})(\cfrac{16}{15}) = \cfrac{6}{15}=\cfrac{2}{5},\therefore X3=5$ - 上述錯誤的原因在於被約分了,所以 $X_n=2^{k}-1$ 只能在將 $0.y$ 通分到分母為 $2^k$ 後的分子與 $2^{k}-1$ 互質的情況才能使用。 - 又其實 $0.y$ 通分後的分子就是 $y$ 的值,因為 $0.y$ 左移 $k$ 個 bit 後就是 $y$ ,這個動作其實就相當於將 $y$ 乗上 $2^k$ ,看下面的例子可以更明瞭。 >e.g. > >$y = 010011 = 2^4+2^1+2^0$ >$0.y = 0.010011 = 2^{-2}+2^{-5}+2^{-6}=(2^{-6})(2^4+2^1+2^0)=\cfrac{2^4+2^1+2^0}{2^6}=\cfrac{y}{2^k}$ - 又 $k=\cfrac{2^k}{2^k-1}$,因此,公式可以改寫如下 $$x = \cfrac{y}{2^k-1}$$ --- ### 第 3 週第 1 題: :::success 延續 [從 $\sqrt{2}$ 的運算談浮點數](https://hackmd.io/s/ryOLwrVtz),假設 double 為 32-bit 寬度,考慮以下符合 IEEE 754 規範的平方根程式,請補上對應數值,使其得以運作: ```clike= #include <stdint.h> /* A union allowing us to convert between a double and two 32-bit integers. * Little-endian representation */ typedef union { double value; struct { uint32_t lsw; uint32_t msw; } parts; } ieee_double_shape_type; /* Set a double from two 32 bit ints. */ #define INSERT_WORDS(d, ix0, ix1) \ do { \ ieee_double_shape_type iw_u = { \ .parts.msw = ix0, \ .parts.lsw = ix1, \ }; \ (d) = iw_u.value; \ } while (0) /* Get two 32 bit ints from a double. */ #define EXTRACT_WORDS(ix0, ix1, d) \ do { \ ieee_double_shape_type ew_u; \ ew_u.value = (d); \ (ix0) = ew_u.parts.msw; \ (ix1) = ew_u.parts.lsw; \ } while (0) static const double one = 1.0, tiny = 1.0e-300; double ieee754_sqrt(double x) { double z; int32_t sign = 0x80000000; uint32_t r, t1, s1, ix1, q1; int32_t ix0, s0, q, m, t, i; EXTRACT_WORDS(ix0, ix1, x); /* take care of INF and NaN */ if ((ix0 & KK1) == KK2) { /* sqrt(NaN) = NaN, sqrt(+INF) = +INF, sqrt(-INF) = sNaN */ return x * x + x; } /* take care of zero */ if (ix0 <= 0) { if (((ix0 & (~sign)) | ix1) == 0) return x; /* sqrt(+-0) = +-0 */ if (ix0 < 0) return (x - x) / (x - x); /* sqrt(-ve) = sNaN */ } /* normalize x */ m = (ix0 >> 20); if (m == 0) { /* subnormal x */ while (ix0 == 0) { m -= 21; ix0 |= (ix1 >> 11); ix1 <<= 21; } for (i = 0; (ix0 & 0x00100000) == 0; i++) ix0 <<= 1; m -= i - 1; ix0 |= (ix1 >> (32 - i)); ix1 <<= i; } m -= KK3; /* unbias exponent */ ix0 = (ix0 & 0x000fffff) | 0x00100000; if (m & 1) { /* odd m, double x to make it even */ ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1 & sign) >> 31); ix1 += ix1; } m >>= 1; /* m = [m/2] */ /* generate sqrt(x) bit by bit */ ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1 & sign) >> 31); ix1 += ix1; q = q1 = s0 = s1 = 0; /* [q,q1] = sqrt(x) */ r = 0x00200000; /* r = moving bit from right to left */ while (r != 0) { t = s0 + r; if (t <= ix0) { s0 = t + r; ix0 -= t; q += r; } ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1 & sign) >> 31); ix1 += ix1; r >>= 1; } r = sign; while (r != 0) { t1 = s1 + r; t = s0; if ((t < ix0) || ((t == ix0) && (t1 <= ix1))) { s1 = t1 + r; if (((t1 & sign) == sign) && (s1 & sign) == 0) s0 += 1; ix0 -= t; if (ix1 < t1) ix0 -= 1; ix1 -= t1; q1 += r; } ix0 += ix0 + ((ix1 & sign) >> 31); ix1 += ix1; r >>= 1; } /* use floating add to find out rounding direction */ if ((ix0 | ix1) != 0) { z = one - tiny; /* trigger inexact flag */ if (z >= one) { z = one + tiny; if (q1 == (uint32_t) 0xffffffff) { q1 = 0; q += 1; } else if (z > one) { if (q1 == (uint32_t) KK4) q += 1; q1 += 2; } else q1 += (q1 & 1); } } ix0 = (q >> 1) + 0x3fe00000; ix1 = q1 >> 1; if ((q & 1) == 1) ix1 |= sign; ix0 += (m << KK5); INSERT_WORDS(z, ix0, ix1); return z; } ``` 延伸題目: 解釋上述程式碼何以運作,並且改為 float (單精度) 版本,注意應該用更短的程式碼來實作 ::: - 想法:有點複雜,將程式碼分段拆解看看。 ```clike= /* A union allowing us to convert between a double and two 32-bit integers. * Little-endian representation */ typedef union { double value; struct { uint32_t lsw; uint32_t msw; } parts; } ieee_double_shape_type; ``` - 在 IEEE 754 中 double 是 64-bit 的。此段程式碼的目的為設定一個新的符合 IEEE double 的資料型別,type 名為 ieee_double_shape_type。 - union 與 struct 非常相像,差別在於 union 在記憶體內所保有的空間僅能存放一個 field (欄位)的資料,適用於某種資料可能有兩種以上不同型態的情況,但同時間只能使用其中一個 field。 - 因此,對 ieee_double_shape_type 這個資料型別來說,他可能是一個 32-bit 的預設 double 且值為 value,也可能是一個名為 parts 的結構體,裡面存放有兩個無號 32-bit 整數 --- lsw 和 msw (least & most significant word),而此結構體就是 IEEE double。 - 所以 struct 裡的記憶體配置長得像 $$|\ lsw\ |\ msw\ |$$ $$or$$ $$|\ \ \ \ \ value\ \ \ \ \ |$$ 每個欄位各 32 bits,此為 little-endian 表示法。但實際的數字應該是長成像 $$|\ msw\ \ lsw\ |$$ ```clike= /* Set a double from two 32 bit ints. */ #define INSERT_WORDS(d, ix0, ix1) \ do { \ ieee_double_shape_type iw_u = { \ .parts.msw = ix0, \ .parts.lsw = ix1, \ }; \ (d) = iw_u.value; \ } while (0) /* Get two 32 bit ints from a double. */ #define EXTRACT_WORDS(ix0, ix1, d) \ do { \ ieee_double_shape_type ew_u; \ ew_u.value = (d); \ (ix0) = ew_u.parts.msw; \ (ix1) = ew_u.parts.lsw; \ } while (0) static const double one = 1.0, tiny = 1.0e-300; ``` - 定義了 INSERT_WORDS 和 EXTRACT_WORDS 函數的行為,並設定了兩個常數。 :::danger 具體作用為何呢?可否舉出 sqrt 以外,其他浮點數也用得到的案例嗎? :notes: jserv ::: >- INSERT_WORDS 相當於將 32-bit 的 ix0 和 ix1 分別放在 msw 和 lsw 的記憶體位置,並將兩者合起來,看成是一個新的 64-bit 數 d。EXTRACT_WORDS 則是相反,但原本的數 d 只有 32-bit。 ```clike= double ieee754_sqrt(double x) { double z; int32_t sign = 0x80000000; uint32_t r, t1, s1, ix1, q1; int32_t ix0, s0, q, m, t, i; EXTRACT_WORDS(ix0, ix1, x); ``` - 宣告了 sign = 1000 0000 ... 0000,為 32-bit 有號整數。 - 宣告了一些需要的變數,值得注意的是 ix0 為宣告為有號而 ix1 為無號。原因應該是 ix0 為 value 的 msw 部分,所以需要保留最前面表示正負號的位元。 - 對輸入的 x 做 EXTRACT_WORDS,相當於把 x 分為 ix0 和 ix1 兩個部分。 --- - 若測試時印不出來,可能需要引入 inttypes.h 標頭檔 - printf 的範例如下 ```clike= printf("ix0: %" PRId32 "\n", ix0); printf("ix1: %" PRIu32 "\n", ix1); ``` --- - [Approved Verbs for Windows PowerShell Commands](https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms714428.aspx) - Windows PowerShell Commands 所使用的動詞列表,有助提昇 git commit 描述之精準度。 - [C 語言的 2016](http://www.infoq.com/cn/articles/c-language-2016) - 一些有關 C 語言的使用心得。

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