DanielHYLai
    • Create new note
    • Create a note from template
      • Sharing URL Link copied
      • /edit
      • View mode
        • Edit mode
        • View mode
        • Book mode
        • Slide mode
        Edit mode View mode Book mode Slide mode
      • Customize slides
      • Note Permission
      • Read
        • Only me
        • Signed-in users
        • Everyone
        Only me Signed-in users Everyone
      • Write
        • Only me
        • Signed-in users
        • Everyone
        Only me Signed-in users Everyone
    • Invite by email
      Invitee

      This note has no invitees

    • Publish Note

      Share your work with the world Congratulations! 🎉 Your note is out in the world Publish Note No publishing access yet

      Your note will be visible on your profile and discoverable by anyone.
      Your note is now live.
      This note is visible on your profile and discoverable online.
      Everyone on the web can find and read all notes of this public team.

      Your account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

      Your team account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

      Explore these features while you wait
      Complete general settings
      Bookmark and like published notes
      Write a few more notes
      Complete general settings
      Write a few more notes
      See published notes
      Unpublish note
      Please check the box to agree to the Community Guidelines.
      View profile
    • Commenting
      Permission
      Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    • Enable
    • Permission
      • Forbidden
      • Owners
      • Signed-in users
      • Everyone
    • Suggest edit
      Permission
      Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    • Enable
    • Permission
      • Forbidden
      • Owners
      • Signed-in users
    • Emoji Reply
    • Enable
    • Versions and GitHub Sync
    • Note settings
    • Note Insights New
    • Make a copy
    • Transfer ownership
    • Delete this note
    • Save as template
    • Insert from template
    • Import from
      • Dropbox
      • Google Drive
      • Gist
      • Clipboard
    • Export to
      • Dropbox
      • Google Drive
      • Gist
    • Download
      • Markdown
      • HTML
      • Raw HTML
Menu Note settings Note Insights Versions and GitHub Sync Sharing URL Create Help
Create Create new note Create a note from template
Menu
Options
Make a copy Transfer ownership Delete this note
Import from
Dropbox Google Drive Gist Clipboard
Export to
Dropbox Google Drive Gist
Download
Markdown HTML Raw HTML
Back
Sharing URL Link copied
/edit
View mode
  • Edit mode
  • View mode
  • Book mode
  • Slide mode
Edit mode View mode Book mode Slide mode
Customize slides
Note Permission
Read
Only me
  • Only me
  • Signed-in users
  • Everyone
Only me Signed-in users Everyone
Write
Only me
  • Only me
  • Signed-in users
  • Everyone
Only me Signed-in users Everyone
  • Invite by email
    Invitee

    This note has no invitees

  • Publish Note

    Share your work with the world Congratulations! 🎉 Your note is out in the world Publish Note No publishing access yet

    Your note will be visible on your profile and discoverable by anyone.
    Your note is now live.
    This note is visible on your profile and discoverable online.
    Everyone on the web can find and read all notes of this public team.

    Your account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

    Your team account was recently created. Publishing will be available soon, allowing you to share notes on your public page and in search results.

    Explore these features while you wait
    Complete general settings
    Bookmark and like published notes
    Write a few more notes
    Complete general settings
    Write a few more notes
    See published notes
    Unpublish note
    Please check the box to agree to the Community Guidelines.
    View profile
    Engagement control
    Commenting
    Permission
    Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    Enable
    Permission
    • Forbidden
    • Owners
    • Signed-in users
    • Everyone
    Suggest edit
    Permission
    Disabled Forbidden Owners Signed-in users Everyone
    Enable
    Permission
    • Forbidden
    • Owners
    • Signed-in users
    Emoji Reply
    Enable
    Import from Dropbox Google Drive Gist Clipboard
       Owned this note    Owned this note      
    Published Linked with GitHub
    • Any changes
      Be notified of any changes
    • Mention me
      Be notified of mention me
    • Unsubscribe
    --- title: 【論文筆記】Black-Scholes Model (1973) tags: [論文筆記, 財務工程] --- # 【論文筆記】Black-Scholes Model (1973) <style> /* 自訂義字體顏色裝飾 */ .grey { color: #808080; } .red { color: #FF0000;} .pink { color: #D87093;} .blue { color: #1E90FF; } .black { color: #000000} </style> :::info **論文名稱**: Black, F., & Scholes, M. (1973). The pricing of options and corporate liabilities. *Journal of political economy*, *81*(3), 637-654. ::: :::success ⚠️ 本文採用 **CC BY-NC-SA 4.0** 授權。轉載請註明出處並保持非商業性使用。 **⚠️ 免責聲明 1:** 本筆記僅供學術交流與個人學習使用,完整內容請參考原論文。 **⚠️ 免責聲明 2:** 本文僅為論文筆記,非屬投資建議,請投資人自負風險。 ::: # 前言 在財務工程中,Black-Scholes (BS) 模型是最經典,也是最容易使用的定價模型。該文獻的貢獻不僅是提供了<span class="blue">歐式選擇權買賣權價格的封閉解</span>,在後續其他定價模型中也依然可以看見 BS 模型的概念和推導手法。雖然 BS 模型因其強烈的假設而為人詬病,然而不可否認地是,無論是在實務面上或是理論面上,BS 模型都提供了我們一個強而有力且易於解析的定價公式。 在本篇文獻中,從<span class="blue">選擇權價格與股票價格的關係</span>開始討論,接著進入<span class="blue">複製投組的想法</span>來思考如何達到連續動態避險。後續在封閉解的浮現過程中,在設定理想環境下,我們從 SDE 看見了 BS 模型的 PDE 樣貌。接著,將 BS 模型的 PDE 轉換為<span class="blue">熱傳導方程式</span>,利用在物理學中已知的解法推導出<span class="blue">買權封閉解的形式</span>。最後藉由<span class="blue">買賣權平價關係</span>,我們無須重新計算,便可算出<span class="blue">賣權封閉解的形式</span>。 讓我們跟著論文的想法來看看這些是如何實現的吧。 So, Let's Think. # 1、Introduction 在 Introduction 中,比較重要的部分是,揭示在無套利風險下,<span class="blue">選擇權與標的股價之間的關係</span>。Figure 1 中,橫軸代表股價 $x$、縱軸代表選擇權價格 $w(x, t)$,並且設定履約價為 $20。圖中,Line A 代表了選擇權最大的價值,而該價值不會超過標的股價 (若超過則代表其中一方有套利機會);Line B 代表了選擇權最小的價值,可以看到 Line B 其實就是一般在到期日時會看到的買權支付函數, $(x - c)^+$,其中 $x$ 代表股價,$c$ 代表履約價。$T_1$、$T_2$,和 $T_3$ 則說明,隨著時間越靠近到期日,選擇權價格會從 Line A 逐漸接近 Line B。 | ![image](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/BkP9fZOXbx.png) | | :---: | | Source: Black & Scholes (1973), Figure 1. | # 2、The Valuation Formula 文中先對推導選擇權價格的「理想環境」做假設: :::warning 1. <span class="black">The <span class="red">short-term interest rate</span> is <span class="red">known</span> and is <span class="red">constant</span> through time. </span> 2. <span class="black">The <span class="red">stock price</span> follows a <span class="red">random walk</span> in continuous time with a variance rate proportional to the square of the stock price. Thus the distribution of possible stock prices at the end of any finite interval is <span class="red">log-normal</span>. <span class="red">The variance rate of the return on the stock is constant</span>. </span> 3. <span class="black">The stock pays <span class="red">no dividends</span> or other distributions. </span> 4. <span class="black">The option is "<span class="red">European"</span>, that is, it can only be exercised at maturity. </span> 5. <span class="black">There are no transaction costs in buying or selling the stock or the option. </span> 6. <span class="black">It is possible to borrow any fraction of the price of securiy to buy it or to hold it, at the short-term interest rate. </span> 7. <span class="black">There are no penalties to short selling. </span> ::: 對於我們要推導 BS 模型的封閉解而言,比較重要的假設在前兩項,因為有這兩項假設才使得最終推導出來的封閉解的形式不過於複雜;後幾項則是針對連續動態避險的可行性做出的假設。 ## A. Assumption 2. 在開始一連串複雜的推導之前,或許可以先看看第二項假設究竟發生了什麼事? 首先,作者假設股價服從一個動態過程,此動態過程稱為幾何布朗運動 (geometric Brownian motion)。因此,我們有以下 SDE, $$ dx = \mu x dt + v x dz, $$ 其中 $\mu$ 為股價預期報酬率、$v$ 為股價變異數,以及 $z$ 為一個 Wiener process。對於將 $v$ 假設為常數為後續的推導省去不少麻煩。 :::spoiler <span class="grey">一些符號的釐清</span> * 文中對於股價的符號僅使用 $x$ 來表達。然而,事實上我們知道股價應該是時間的函數才對,所以更好的寫法會是 $x_t$。但這裡為求與本文符號的一致性,我們先寫 $x$。 * 但下面的結果需要區分到期日以及初始日,所以僅會在此處與文中符號不一致。 ::: 透過 Ito's lemma,令 $f(t, x_t) = \ln x_t$ 我們可以得到, $$ \begin{align} d \ln x_t &= \frac{1}{x_t} dx_t + \frac{1}{2} \Big(\frac{-1}{x_{t}^{2}}\Big) (dx_t)^2 \\ &= \Big(\mu - \frac{1}{2}v^2\Big) dt + v dz_t. \end{align} $$ 接著,對兩側做時間 $0$ 到 $T$ 的積分, $$ \begin{align} &\int_{0}^{T} d \ln x_t = \int_{0}^{T} \Big(\mu - \frac{1}{2}v^2\Big) dt + \int_{0}^{T} v dz_t \\ &\Rightarrow \ln x_T - \ln x_0 = \Big(\mu - \frac{1}{2}v^2\Big) T + vz_T \\ &\Rightarrow x_T = x_0 \cdot \exp \Big\{ \Big(\mu - \frac{1}{2}v^2\Big) T + vz_T \Big\}. \end{align} $$ 因為 $z_t$ 是一個 Wiener process,所以我們可以<span class="blue">得到 assumption 2 的結果</span>, $$ x_t \sim \text{lognormal}\Big( \ln x_0 + \Big(\mu - \frac{1}{2}v^2\Big) T, v^2 T\Big), $$ 我們也可以再更進一步得到對數價格的分佈為 $$ \ln \frac{x_T}{x_0} \sim N\Big(\Big(\mu - \frac{1}{2}v^2\Big) T, v^2 T \Big). $$ ## B. Replication Portfolio 接下來就是一連串的數學推導了 🥲 首先,我們考慮以下避險投資組合, $$ \text{Short } n_x \text{ units stock / Long } n_w \text{ units option} $$ 因此,我們可以得到投資組合,$\Pi$,的價值為 $$ \Pi = n_x \cdot x + n_w \cdot w. $$ 在短時間變化,$dt$,之內,投資組合價值的變化為 $$ \begin{equation} \tag{1} d\Pi = n_x \cdot dx + n_w \cdot dw. \end{equation} $$ 但我們現在不知道究竟要做多多少單位的標的股票,以及做空多少單位的選擇權?所以,接下來我們就要試圖來找出這兩個值,且該數值是可以使得投資組合達到避險效果的! ## C. The exact values of $n_x$ and $n_w$ 針對 $dx$,我們已經知道其服從幾何布朗運動, $$ \begin{equation} \tag{2} dx = \mu x dt + v x dz. \end{equation} $$ 針對 $dw$,我們知道 $w$ 是股價 $x$ 和時間 $t$ 的函數,所以可透過 Ito's lemma, $$ \begin{align} dw &= w_t dt + w_x dx + \frac{1}{2} w_{xx} (dx)^2\\ &= w_t dt + w_x (\mu x dt + v x dz) + \frac{1}{2} w_{xx} (v^2 x^2 dt) \\ &= \Big[w_t + \mu x w_x + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx}\Big] dt + v x w_x dz. \tag{3} \end{align} $$ 將 (2) 和 (3) 代入 (1),可以得到 $$ \begin{equation} \tag{4} d \Pi = \Big[ n_w \Big( w_t + \mu x w_x + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx} \Big) + n_x \mu x \Big] dt + \Big[ n_w v x w_x + n_x v x \Big] dz. \end{equation} $$ 根據無套利條件,$d \Pi = r \Pi dt$,也就是說,在 (4) 中的擴散項係數必須為 $0$, $$ n_w v x w_x + n_x v x = 0 \Rightarrow w_x = -\frac{n_x}{n_w}. $$ 上面的式子說明,當投資人持有 $1$ 單位的選擇權時,同一時間必須持有 $-w_x$ 單位的股票。 如此,我們便找到了 $n_x = -w_x$ 以及 $n_w = 1$,而這個概念就是基本的 Delta 避險策略。 我們再將這個結果帶回 (4) 就可以看到該投資組合確切的變化為 $$ \begin{align} d \Pi &= \Big[ \Big( w_t + \mu x w_x + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx} \Big) - \mu x w_x \Big] dt \\ &= \Big[ w_t + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx} \Big] dt \end{align} $$ 又因為 $d \Pi = r \Pi dt$,所以 $$ \begin{align} &\Big[ w_t + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx} \Big] dt = r (-w_x \cdot x + w) dt \\ &\Rightarrow w_t + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx} + r x w_x - r w = 0. \tag{5} \end{align} $$ 而 (5) 即為 BS 模型的 PDE。 ## D. Heat Equation 文中處理 (5) 的做法是將該 PDE 轉成熱傳導方程式 (heat equation),其形式如下, $$ y_t = y_{xx}. $$ 這裡做了一連串的變數變換處理,文中的作法有點天外飛來一筆。此處我們試圖一步步地做轉換,慢慢地將 BS 模型的 PDE 轉換 heat equation。 在解 PDE 很重要的一點是,要知道邊界條件的設定。而我們知道,在到期日 $t^*$ 當天,選擇權的價格為 $w(x, t^*) = (x - c)^+$。因此,我們就可以將支付函數視為 (5) 的邊界條件。 :::warning <span class="blue">**變數變換 1**</span><span class="black">:換成對數價格,$\displaystyle l = \ln \frac{x}{c} \Rightarrow x = c e^l$</span> ::: 這裡,我們嘗試將 $x$ 給消除。對 (5) 做變數變換 1,會有影響的項有 $w_x$ 和 $w_{xx}$,我們先計算變數變換的結果。 對 $w_x$, $$ w_x = \frac{\partial w}{\partial x} = \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} \frac{\partial l}{\partial x} = \frac{1}{x} \frac{\partial w}{\partial l}. $$ 對 $w_{xx}$, $$ \begin{align} w_{xx} &= \frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial x^2} = \frac{\partial}{\partial x} \Big[ \frac{\partial w}{\partial x} \Big] = \frac{\partial}{\partial x} \Big[ \frac{1}{x} \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} \Big] \\ &= \frac{1}{x} \frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial x \partial l} - \frac{1}{x^2} \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} \\ &= \frac{1}{x} \frac{\partial}{\partial l} \Big[ \frac{1}{x} \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} \Big] - \frac{1}{x^2} \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} \\ &= \frac{1}{x^2} \Big[ \frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial l^2} - \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} \Big]. \end{align} $$ 代回 (5),可得 $$ \begin{align} &w_t + \frac{1}{2} v^2 x^2 w_{xx} + r x w_x - r w = 0 \\ &\Rightarrow w_t + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial l^2} + (r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} - rw = 0. \tag{$5^\prime$} \end{align} $$ :::warning <span class="blue">**變數變換 2**</span><span class="black">:換成從到期日折現回現值的選擇權價格,$\displaystyle w(l, t) = e^{r(t - t^*)}y(l, t)$</span> ::: 這裡,我們嘗試將 $rw$ 給消除。對 ($5^\prime$) 做變數變換 2,會有影響的項有 $w_t$ 和 $w$ 都要換成 $e^{r(t - t^*)}y$,我們先計算變數變換的結果。 對 $w_t$, $$ w_t = \frac{\partial w}{\partial t} = re^{r(t - t^*)}y + e^{r(t - t^*)} \frac{\partial y}{\partial t}. $$ 代回 ($5^\prime$),可得 $$ \begin{align} &w_t + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 w}{\partial l^2} + (r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial w}{\partial l} - rw = 0 \\ &\Rightarrow \frac{\partial y}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial l^2} + (r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial y}{\partial l} = 0. \tag{$5^{\prime \prime}$} \end{align} $$ :::warning <span class="blue">**變數變換 3**</span><span class="black">:去除飄移項,$u = l - (r - \frac{1}{2} v^2)(t - t^*)$</span> ::: 這裡,我們嘗試將 **飄移項係數** 給消除,對 ($5^{\prime \prime}$) 做變數變換 3 要注意的地方是,我們將座標系從 $(l, t)$ 轉換到 $(u, t)$,所以對於折現價格 $y$ 而言,可以視為是 <span class="pink">$y(u(l, t), t)$</span> 函數。我們先計算變數變換的結果。 對於 $\partial y / \partial l$, $$ \frac{\partial y}{\partial l} = \frac{\partial y}{\partial u} \frac{\partial u}{\partial l} = \frac{\partial y}{\partial u}. $$ 對於 $\partial^2 y / \partial l^2$, $$ \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial l^2} = \frac{\partial}{\partial l} \Big[ \frac{\partial y}{\partial l} \Big] = \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial l \partial u} = \frac{\partial}{\partial u} \Big[ \frac{\partial y}{\partial l} \Big] = \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial u^2}. $$ 對於 $\partial y / \partial t$,這裡要注意價格之間的函數關係, $$ \frac{\partial y}{\partial t} \Big|_l = \frac{\partial y}{\partial u} \frac{\partial u}{\partial t} + \frac{\partial y}{\partial t} \Big|_u = -(r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial y}{\partial u} + \frac{\partial y}{\partial t}. $$ 代回 ($5^{\prime \prime}$),可得 $$ \begin{align} &\frac{\partial y}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial l^2} + (r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial y}{\partial l} = 0 \\ & \Rightarrow -(r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial y}{\partial u} + \frac{\partial y}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial u^2} + (r - \frac{1}{2} v^2) \frac{\partial y}{\partial u} = 0 \\ & \Rightarrow \frac{\partial y}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial u^2} = 0. \tag{$5^{\prime \prime \prime}$} \end{align} $$ :::warning <span class="blue">**變數變換 4**</span><span class="black">:去除多餘係數,$s = -\frac{1}{2} v^2 (t - t^*)$</span> ::: 這裡,我們嘗試將 **多餘係數** 給消除。對 ($5^{\prime \prime \prime}$) 做變數變換 4,會有影響的項有 $\partial y / \partial t$ ,我們先計算變數變換的結果。 對 $\partial y / \partial t$, $$ \frac{\partial y}{\partial t} = \frac{\partial y}{\partial s} \frac{\partial s}{\partial t} = -\frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial y}{\partial s}. $$ 代回 ($5^{\prime \prime \prime}$),可得 $$ \begin{align} &\frac{\partial y}{\partial t} + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial u^2} = 0 \\ &\Rightarrow -\frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial y}{\partial s} + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \frac{\partial^2 y}{\partial u^2} = 0 \\ &\Rightarrow y_s = y_{uu}. \tag{6} \end{align} $$ $y_s$ 可視為選擇權價格對時間做偏微分,$y_{uu}$ 則是選擇權價格對股價做二次偏微分。如此,我們就從 BS 模型的 PDE 轉到了 heat equation。 ## E. Solving BS PDE via Heat Equation 現在我們有了轉換過後的 PDE,但是別忘記我們的邊界條件也要做相對應的轉換, $$ \begin{align} w(x, t^*) &= (x - c)^+ \\ \Rightarrow y(u, 0) &= (ce^u - c)^+. \tag{7} \end{align} $$ 藉由卷積積分 (convolution integral),我們知道 $$ y(u, s) = \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(\xi) \cdot H(u, s, \xi) d\xi, $$ 其中 $H$ 稱為熱核 (heat kernel)。該 heat kernel 具有不同形式,我們使用以下形式的 kernel, $$ H(u, s, \xi) = \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{(u - \xi)^2}{4s} \Big\}. $$ 將 heat kernel 和邊界條件 (7) 代入 convolution integral,可以得到 $$ \begin{align} y(u, s) &= \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} f(\xi) \cdot H(u, s, \xi) d\xi \\ &= \int_{-\infty}^{\infty} y(\xi, 0) \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{(u - \xi)^2}{4s} \Big\} d\xi \\ &= \int_{0}^{\infty} c(e^\xi - 1) \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{(u - \xi)^2}{4s} \Big\} d\xi \\ &= \left[ \int_{0}^{\infty} c e^\xi \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{(u - \xi)^2}{4s} \Big\} d\xi \right] - \\ &\quad \quad \left[ \int_{0}^{\infty} c \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{(u - \xi)^2}{4s} \Big\} d\xi \right] \end{align} $$ 我們看到這裡跑出了兩項互減的積分,感覺已經是離答案不遠了!我們先處理後項的積分, 令 $q = (\xi - u) / \sqrt{2s}$,則 $d\xi = \sqrt{2s} dq$, $$ \begin{align} &\int_{0}^{\infty} c \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{(u - \xi)^2}{4s} \Big\} d\xi \\ &= c \int_{-\frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}}}^{\infty} \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{q^2}{2} \Big\} \sqrt{2s} dq \\ &= c \int_{-\frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}}}^{\infty} \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi}} \exp \Big\{ -\frac{q^2}{2} \Big\} dq \\ &= c \cdot \left[ 1 - N \left( -\frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}} \right) \right] \\ &= c \cdot N \left( \frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}} \right), \end{align} $$ 其中 $N(\cdot)$ 為標準常態分佈之累積密度函數。 接著,我們處理前項的積分。這裡需要用到配方法的技巧,所以我們先對指數部做一些處理, $$ \begin{align} \xi - \frac{(u- \xi)^2}{4s} &= \frac{4s \xi - (u^2 - 2 u \xi + \xi^2)}{4s} \\ &= \frac{-(u^2 - 2(u + 2s)\xi + \xi^2)}{4s} \\ &= \frac{-[(\xi - (u + 2s))^2 - (u + 2s)^2 + u^2]}{4s} \\ &= \frac{-[(\xi - (u + 2s))^2 - 4us - 4s^2]}{4s} \\ &= \frac{-(\xi - (u + 2s))^2}{4s} + (u + s). \end{align} $$ 所以,前項的積分會變成 $$ \begin{align} c \cdot e^{u + s} \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \int_{0}^{\infty} \exp \left\{ \frac{-(\xi - (u + 2s))^2}{4s} \right\} d\xi. \end{align} $$ 令 $q = \xi - (u + 2s) / \sqrt{2s}$,則 $d\xi = \sqrt{2s} dq$, $$ \begin{align} &c \cdot e^{u + s} \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{4 \pi s}} \int_{0}^{\infty} \exp \left\{ \frac{-(\xi - (u + 2s))^2}{4s} \right\} d\xi \\ &= c \cdot e^{u + s} \cdot \frac{1}{\sqrt{2 \pi}} \int_{\frac{-(u + 2s)}{\sqrt{2s}}}^{\infty} \exp \left\{ \frac{-q^2}{2} \right\} dq \\ &= c \cdot e^{u + s} \cdot N\left(\frac{u + 2s}{\sqrt{2s}}\right) \end{align} $$ 因此,我們就將原先的 convolution integral 變成 $$ y(u, s) = c \cdot e^{u + s} \cdot N\left(\frac{u + 2s}{\sqrt{2s}}\right) - c \cdot N \left( \frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}} \right), $$ 其中: $$ \begin{align} u &= \ln \frac{x}{c} + \left( r - \frac{1}{2} v^2 \right)(t^* - t) \\ s &= -\frac{1}{2} v^2 (t - t^*) \\ w &= e^{r (t - t^*)}y(u, s) \end{align} $$ 將變數變換的結果代回去就可以得到歐式選擇權的定價公式: $$ \begin{equation} \tag{8} w(x, t) = x N(d_1) - ce^{r(t - t^*)} N(d_2), \end{equation} $$ 其中: $$ d_1 = \frac{\ln \frac{x}{c} + (r + \frac{1}{2} v^2)(t^* - t)}{v \sqrt{t^* - t}} \quad \quad d_2 = d_1 - v \sqrt{t^* - t}. $$ :::spoiler <span class="grey">代回變數變換的過程</span> <span class="blue">1</span><span class="black">: $$ y = w \cdot e^{r (t^* - t)} $$ </span> <span class="blue">2</span><span class="black">: $$ \begin{align} & e^{-r (t^* - t)} \cdot c \cdot e^{u + s} \\ & = \exp \left\{ \ln c - r(t^* - t) + \ln x - \ln c + \left( r - \frac{1}{2} v^2 \right)(t^* - t) + -\frac{1}{2} v^2 (t - t^*)\right\} \\ & = e^{\ln x} = x \end{align} $$ </span> <span class="blue">3</span><span class="black">: $$ c \cdot e^{-r (t^* - t)} = c \cdot e^{r (t - t^*)} $$ </span> <span class="blue">4</span><span class="black">: $$ \begin{align} \frac{u + 2s}{\sqrt{2s}} &= \frac{\ln \frac{x}{c} + \left( r - \frac{1}{2} v^2 \right)(t^* - t) + v^2 (t^* - t)}{v \sqrt{t^* - t}} \\ &= \frac{\ln \frac{x}{c} + \left( r + \frac{1}{2} v^2 \right)(t^* - t)}{v \sqrt{t^* - t}} \end{align} $$ </span> <span class="blue">5</span><span class="black">: $$ \frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}} = \frac{\ln \frac{x}{c} + \left( r - \frac{1}{2} v^2 \right)(t^* - t)}{v \sqrt{t^* - t}} $$ </span> <span class="blue">6</span><span class="black">: $$ \begin{align} & \frac{u + 2s}{\sqrt{2s}} - \frac{u}{\sqrt{2s}} = \sqrt{2s} \\ & \Rightarrow d_1 - d_2 = v \sqrt{t^* - t} \\ & \Rightarrow d_2 = d_1 - v \sqrt{t^* - t} \end{align} $$ </span> ::: # 4、More Complicated Options 前面我們花了一番功夫找到了歐式買權的價格封閉解,但我們有需要按照相同的步驟來求賣權的價格封閉解嗎? 答案是 NO,我們可以透過<span class="blue">買賣權平價關係 (put-call parity) </span>直接求得賣權價格封閉解。 我們考慮以下兩個避險組合 $P_A$ 和 $P_B$ $$ P_A = w(x, t) + ce^{r(t^*-t)} \quad \quad P_B = u(x, t) + x $$ 其中 $u(x, t)$ 為歐式賣權的價格。 從中可以發現,在到期日時,無論兩個組合如何變化,其支付函數皆為 $x_T - c$。因此,我們就知道 $P_A = P_B$ 必須成立。所以, $$ \begin{align} & w(x, t) + ce^{r(t - t^*)} = u(x, t) + x \\ & \Rightarrow x N(d_1) - ce^{r(t - t^*)} N(d_2) + ce^{r(t - t^*)} = u(x, t) + x \\ & \Rightarrow u(x, t) = -x [1 - N(d_1)] + c [1 - N(d_2)] \\ & \Rightarrow u(x, t) = -x N(-d_1) + ce^{r(t - t^*)} N(-d_2). \end{align} $$ 如此,我們就可以快速地找到歐式賣權價格的封閉解。 # 7、Empirical Test 實證結果大致有以下現象與結論: - 實際交易價格 和 歐式買權價格 (8) 存在系統性的偏離。 - 對於低波動性的股票,其偏離(高於)價格的幅度,比高波動性的股票要來得大。 這意味著市場低估了波動度差異對選擇權價值的影響能力。 💡 <span class="pink">用白話文說就是,市場投資人不願意為高風險的股票支付 BS 算出來這麼高的溢酬;同時也不認為低風險的股票如 BS 算出來的如此不值錢。</span> - 儘管存在系統性的偏離,也不代表這之中存在套利機會 (因為可能會被交易成本覆蓋)。 --- :::spoiler <span class="grey">Last updated: Dec 23, 2025 Created: Dec 18, 2025</span> - Dec 23, 2025:更新圖片連結。 - Dec 19, 2025:完成初版內容。 - Dec 18, 2025:創建筆記。 :::

    Import from clipboard

    Paste your markdown or webpage here...

    Advanced permission required

    Your current role can only read. Ask the system administrator to acquire write and comment permission.

    This team is disabled

    Sorry, this team is disabled. You can't edit this note.

    This note is locked

    Sorry, only owner can edit this note.

    Reach the limit

    Sorry, you've reached the max length this note can be.
    Please reduce the content or divide it to more notes, thank you!

    Import from Gist

    Import from Snippet

    or

    Export to Snippet

    Are you sure?

    Do you really want to delete this note?
    All users will lose their connection.

    Create a note from template

    Create a note from template

    Oops...
    This template has been removed or transferred.
    Upgrade
    All
    • All
    • Team
    No template.

    Create a template

    Upgrade

    Delete template

    Do you really want to delete this template?
    Turn this template into a regular note and keep its content, versions, and comments.

    This page need refresh

    You have an incompatible client version.
    Refresh to update.
    New version available!
    See releases notes here
    Refresh to enjoy new features.
    Your user state has changed.
    Refresh to load new user state.

    Sign in

    Forgot password
    or
    Sign in via Google Sign in via Facebook Sign in via X(Twitter) Sign in via GitHub Sign in via Dropbox Sign in with Wallet
    Wallet ( )
    Connect another wallet

    New to HackMD? Sign up

    By signing in, you agree to our terms of service.

    Help

    • English
    • 中文
    • Français
    • Deutsch
    • 日本語
    • Español
    • Català
    • Ελληνικά
    • Português
    • italiano
    • Türkçe
    • Русский
    • Nederlands
    • hrvatski jezik
    • język polski
    • Українська
    • हिन्दी
    • svenska
    • Esperanto
    • dansk

    Documents

    Help & Tutorial

    How to use Book mode

    Slide Example

    API Docs

    Edit in VSCode

    Install browser extension

    Contacts

    Feedback

    Discord

    Send us email

    Resources

    Releases

    Pricing

    Blog

    Policy

    Terms

    Privacy

    Cheatsheet

    Syntax Example Reference
    # Header Header 基本排版
    - Unordered List
    • Unordered List
    1. Ordered List
    1. Ordered List
    - [ ] Todo List
    • Todo List
    > Blockquote
    Blockquote
    **Bold font** Bold font
    *Italics font* Italics font
    ~~Strikethrough~~ Strikethrough
    19^th^ 19th
    H~2~O H2O
    ++Inserted text++ Inserted text
    ==Marked text== Marked text
    [link text](https:// "title") Link
    ![image alt](https:// "title") Image
    `Code` Code 在筆記中貼入程式碼
    ```javascript
    var i = 0;
    ```
    var i = 0;
    :smile: :smile: Emoji list
    {%youtube youtube_id %} Externals
    $L^aT_eX$ LaTeX
    :::info
    This is a alert area.
    :::

    This is a alert area.

    Versions and GitHub Sync
    Get Full History Access

    • Edit version name
    • Delete

    revision author avatar     named on  

    More Less

    Note content is identical to the latest version.
    Compare
      Choose a version
      No search result
      Version not found
    Sign in to link this note to GitHub
    Learn more
    This note is not linked with GitHub
     

    Feedback

    Submission failed, please try again

    Thanks for your support.

    On a scale of 0-10, how likely is it that you would recommend HackMD to your friends, family or business associates?

    Please give us some advice and help us improve HackMD.

     

    Thanks for your feedback

    Remove version name

    Do you want to remove this version name and description?

    Transfer ownership

    Transfer to
      Warning: is a public team. If you transfer note to this team, everyone on the web can find and read this note.

        Link with GitHub

        Please authorize HackMD on GitHub
        • Please sign in to GitHub and install the HackMD app on your GitHub repo.
        • HackMD links with GitHub through a GitHub App. You can choose which repo to install our App.
        Learn more  Sign in to GitHub

        Push the note to GitHub Push to GitHub Pull a file from GitHub

          Authorize again
         

        Choose which file to push to

        Select repo
        Refresh Authorize more repos
        Select branch
        Select file
        Select branch
        Choose version(s) to push
        • Save a new version and push
        • Choose from existing versions
        Include title and tags
        Available push count

        Pull from GitHub

         
        File from GitHub
        File from HackMD

        GitHub Link Settings

        File linked

        Linked by
        File path
        Last synced branch
        Available push count

        Danger Zone

        Unlink
        You will no longer receive notification when GitHub file changes after unlink.

        Syncing

        Push failed

        Push successfully