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    # 小型湖泊使地球冰層陷入危機 作者: Kristin Poinar 譯者: 林祉均 <style> .navbar { display: none; } </style> ###### tags: `2024-02` `物理新知` https://pubs.aip.org/physicstoday/article/76/10/70/2912740/Small-lakes-could-destabilize-Earth-s-ice-sheetsIn?searchresult=1 *Kristin Poinar* <!-- 封面圖片:https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ross_Ice_Shelf,_Antarctica_on_Earth.jpg --> *融水 (Meltwater)湖泊是威脅格陵蘭與南極冰層的眾多因素之一* 地球的極地和其他地方不同,白晝和黑夜的週期不是24小時,而是整整一年。每個極地每年只會出現一次日出和一次日落。如此兩極化的一年包含了漫長的冬季和強烈的夏季,足以融化部分但不是全部的降雪。這種週期造就了地球的冰層。 格陵蘭冰川儲存了相當於全球海平面上7米高的水量,而南極的東西兩處冰層則鎖住了60米高的水量。在格陵蘭,夏季融水相當豐富,但在南極,只有邊緣地區會融化。 在冰層上,自然的地表凹陷會將融水收集成為數公里寬,數公尺深的湖泊,如圖1所示。如果沒有這些凹陷,融水將經過冰層表面流向海洋。但是湖泊中的水可以使下方冰層破裂讓融水得以抄捷徑。由於冰(密度為920 公斤/立方公尺)和融水(密度為1000 公斤/立方公尺)之間的密度差異,這種冰層破裂的唯一條件是預先存在的斷層和足夠填充它的融水。水的重量集中在裂縫的尖端,只要有新的水不斷流入以保持壓力,就會迫使裂縫變得更深。 相同的原理——水力壓裂(fracking)——也被石油和天然氣產業使用。然而,在這種情況下,鑽井工必須對水進行人工加壓來破壞密度為2500 公斤/立方公尺的頁岩。在冰層上,僅靠重力就足夠了。 **湖泊加速冰層滑動** 格陵蘭冰川中的冰以兩種方式流動:一種是變形,每年讓冰移動數十公尺;另一種則是滑動,冰層底部的水提供了潤滑,每年讓冰層移動好幾公里。這些水分約95%是來自地表,從裂縫流入,其中許多裂縫是由地表的湖泊引發。這些裂縫出現得非常迅速:僅僅在幾個小時內,它們就能向下傳遞數百公尺,將$10^{10}$公升的水排放到冰床上,流量超過尼加拉大瀑布。 在冰層下方,流入的水形成一個充滿水的腔室,像是水泡一樣,局部抬高冰層並消除了冰和冰床之間的摩擦力,使冰層得以流動。隨著時間的推移,水向外擴散,水泡縮小,摩擦力再度出現,但最初的擾動引發了重要的短暫變化。 ![圖片1 (1)](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/H1QEA0Yca.png) 圖1.格陵蘭冰川表面的湖泊(a)位於格陵蘭冰川的一個20×20公里區域(插圖中的紅星)中,這些湖泊是衛星於2018年6月12日拍攝。圖中橘色圓圈標示出其中三個湖泊周圍3到5公里的區域,一個湖泊的排水可能會誘發另一個湖泊排水。 (b) 這個地表湖在水突破冰層之前的樣貌。 冰面被推升約1公尺,且冰的速度增加得很快,每年可以將冰層拉伸0.1-1%。如果過程中引發的應力超過了冰的抗拉強度,那麼在湖泊周圍和內部將出現新的裂縫。至關重要的是,如果這些裂縫遇到另外一個湖泊,那麼該湖泊的水便可以鑽破冰層到達冰床,而這可能會產生另一個水泡,並在其他湖泊盆地中打開新的裂縫並排空湖水。觀測結果證實了此一過程:每年夏季,格陵蘭總是有數十個成群的湖泊會在幾天期間內相繼排空。 這些事件由兩個空間尺度控制:(A)水泡創建新地表裂縫的長度,和(B)湖泊之間的距離。A的估計範圍(3-5公里)超過B的範圍(1-2公里),因此帶來了一波湖泊排水的骨牌效應,往冰河的上下游傳播。隨著此一趨勢向下游推進,A的值通常會增加,而B減小,使得下游的所有湖泊可能都會排空。 然而,大約在距海岸線100公里處,B的數值會升高到超過A;這些湖泊之間的距離太遠,無法與水泡誘發的裂縫相交。但在不久的將來,隨著氣候暖化而冰層變薄,A將增加,而A與B的交會點將向內陸移動,導致新湖泊被排空。這會將水送到冰床內陸的較乾燥區域,那裡的冰河下水系統(原本)發展不佳,甚至可能根本不存在。理論上,這個過程可能會使冰層更快地滑入海中,進一步讓冰層變薄。 湖泊排空的趨勢是否是破壞冰層穩定性的最後一根稻草?可能是,但這個機制相當緩慢:它仰賴高黏度(Viscosity)的冰流使冰層變薄,將其表面高度降低到足夠低的海拔,那些地方的夏季溫度超過0°因而可形成融水湖泊。以這種方式完全摧毀冰層可能需要數千年。其他可能摧毀冰層的機制,例如冰山碎裂掉入溫度較高的海水,發生得更加迅速。重要的是,格陵蘭冰川消失的時間尺度主要受到地球暖化速率的影響。人為造成的暖化加劇看似可能帶來更快的時間尺度——也許只有1000年,但迄今為止還沒有任何過程將系統推向不穩定。 **湖泊使冰棚解體** 在地球的另一端,南極洲被冰棚環繞——它們是巨大南極洲冰層外圍的大片浮冰。由於冰棚浮在海中,約90%的冰處在水面下,使其表面只有高於海平面數十米。這麼低的海拔意味著在南半球夏季時該處會有更暖的氣溫和融水。 ![圖片2 (1)](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/ryEPC0F96.png) 圖2. 在南極半島的拉爾森B冰棚(Larsen B Ice Shelf)上,(a)14×14公里區域內的地表湖泊,在冰棚解體的兩年前,2000年2月21日由衛星拍攝。粉紅色圓圈顯示了三個湖泊的2公里的彎曲變形半徑。 (b)一個冰棚坍塌之前的理想化剖面圖,包括湖泊本身以及它所引發的地表變形:一個中央盆地和一個半徑兩公里、高度達數十公分的前隆起(forebulge)。受到拉伸的表面很可能會斷裂。 (c)相同區域在湖水排空後的剖面,排空的湖引發因為*註地殼均衡(isostatic)產生的回彈並將原本的前隆起翻轉,在原先裂縫位置的另一面上會形成新的斷裂。 *註:地殼均衡(Isostasy)是一個地質學上的術語,是指地球岩石圈和軟流圈之間的重力平衡]* 南極半島上的拉爾森B冰棚曾在每個夏季都承載數千個融水湖泊,如圖2a所示。這些湖泊的重量對漂浮的冰棚造成彈性彎曲,因而產生了湖泊盆地和稱為前隆起(forebulge)的表面變形環繞著湖泊,如圖2b所示。 這種彈性彎曲應力影響了湖泊下方冰棚的下表面以及前隆起處的上表面。如前所述,足夠大的應力會引發斷裂,而任何裂縫所及之處的湖水便可穿過冰棚排入下方的海洋。移除水的重量負載會促使湖泊盆地回彈,就像一個橡皮玩具從下凹狀彈起變成凸起狀一樣。此一回彈將系統反轉成為一個突起的湖底和下凹的前隆起,如圖2c所示。 因此,應力引發的斷裂會形成在新的前隆起的下表面,恰好位於原先裂縫的正下方。如果裂縫處恰好有第二個湖泊,便可能會將湖水排空。這種情況在2002年就發生在拉爾森B冰棚上。棋盤狀的裂縫使得數百個湖泊在僅僅幾個星期內排空,造成冰棚解體。 在2002年之前,冰棚抑制了灌注它的上游冰河流動。而冰棚的解體導致這些冰河流入海中的流量增加了50%,不過後來流速已經趨近於其初始值。幸運的是,冰棚集水區僅有6300平方公里,相當於德拉瓦州的面積;冰棚崩解以及往後21年中冰河的變化,引起的總海平面上升不到1毫米。相較之下,整個南極冰川占地一千四百萬平方公里的冰川,自2002年以來已經導致全球海平面上升了8毫米,其中大部分歸因於較溫暖的海水加速了西南極洲的冰流。 南極的冰約有60%位於冰棚上游,冰棚的消失將使冰河陷入加速流失的危機。目前,羅斯(Ross)和菲爾克納-隆(Filchner– Ronne Ice Shelves)兩個冰棚占據了南極大陸的40%,而它們的表面幾乎沒有任何融水。它們也比拉爾森B冰棚厚很多,所以彎曲和斷裂不易發生。這些主要冰棚必須要同時經歷變薄及氣候暖化的作用才可能因湖泊引發的彎曲而解體,而這可能需要數個世紀甚至數千年才會發生。然而,南極半島上已經至少有四個冰棚是透過這種機制崩解的。此處情況和格陵蘭相同,倖存南極冰棚的命運將與未來氣候暖化密切相關。 ‣ A. F. Banwell, D. R. MacAyeal, O. V. Sergienko, “Breakup of the Larsen B Ice Shelf triggered by chain reaction drainage of supraglacial lakes,” Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 5872 (2013). ‣ L. A. Stevens et al., “Greenland supraglacial lake drainages trig-gered by hydrologically induced basal slip,” Nature 522, 73 (2015). ‣ J. Stock, “Modeled patterns of crevassing induced by supra-glacial lake drainage in western Greenland,” MS thesis, U. at Buffalo (2020).

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