C.A.Lee
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    --- robots: index, follow tags: NCTU, CS, 共筆, 計網概, 陳志成 description: 交大資工課程學習筆記 lang: zh-tw dir: ltr breaks: true disqus: hackmd GA: UA-100433652-1 --- 計算機網路概論--陳志成 === > [TOC] # Syllabus - 除加簽者外,上課不點名 - 考試時間不調整,分數不調分 - 四次考試各佔 25% - [其他共筆Test3](https://hackmd.io/s/BJXghQ2me) # Course ## **01 Introduction** **Web Classification (geographical scope)** ###### LAN, MAN, WAN - Local Area Networks (LANs) - Share and exchange data among systems / expensive resources - Small scope - usually owned by the same organization that owns the attached devices --> purchase and maintenancefaster (1~100Mbs) - High-Speed LANs - Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) - Middle ground - 少用此區分 - Wide Area Networks (WANs) - large geographical area - public right-of-ways (大家都可以用) (ex. 電話線) - *interconnected internal (switching) nodes* - Relatively modest capacity - slower (56k) - xDSL (ADSL, HDSL, SDSL, VDSL)... - High-Speed WANs - Tiered LANs (階層式) - Private WAN - Internet (Public WAN) - Cost saving - Offloading management to public network provider - public -> Less secure - Private WAN **Security** - Security methods - Authentication (認證) - Password: Static, Dynamic - Token - Biometric tech. - Authorization (授權) - Integrity: protect from unauthorized change (不被竄改) - parity check (檢查碼check bit) - Confidentiality (保密) - Availability (可用性) - Non-repudiation (不可拒絕的) -> 凡走過必留痕跡 - Firewall - Packet-filtering firewalls (過濾式):擋住特定連線 <- 最多用的 - proxy (代理式) -> (效能最差) - Application-level proxy servers - Circuit Level gateway - Stateful inspection firewalls (檢查式) -> 追蹤連接狀態(效能較差) - Hybrid (混合式) - IP Security (IPsec)(網際網路安全協定) - protecting IP datagrams and upper layer protocols - IETF - IPv4, IPv6 - Virtual Private Network (VPN) (綜合private & public network) - 利用已加密的[通道協議](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E9%81%93%E5%8D%94%E8%AD%B0)(Tunneling Protocol)來達到保密、傳送端認證、訊息準確性等私人訊息安全效果 **Switch Network** ### Circuit Switching, Packet Switching - Switch node (router) - Switch network ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.582121_1474526655768_undefined?fit=max&w=882) - 打電話前幾秒無聲時間:尋找連線路徑中...... - 打手機的空白時間比家用電話長,因為手機會移動 - Circuit Switching - Dedicated communication path between two stations - circuit establishment -> Information transfer -> Circuit disconnect - feature: - Low channel utilization - Delay prior to data transfer for session establishment - data transmitted at a fixed data rate with no delay other than a propagation delay - cons: - bursty traffic ([非連續的資料傳遞](http://sls.weco.net/blog/tzef/10-jan-2009/12441)) - devices must transmit and receive at the same data rate (with no delay) - Packet Switching - packet -> transmit randomly -> arrived - 每個packet包含: - Header: 信封 - Payload: 內容 - 每個packet各自找路徑(router幫它找) - router裡面有routing table來決定要送往哪個方向 - 使用「最短路徑演算法」 - **「store and forward」** - 不需要reserve一條獨立的路徑 - Packet行為 [[1]](http://sls.weco.net/node/10669) [[2]](http://cs.uccs.edu/~cs522/F99rout.PDF) - Datagram - 每個packet獨自處理 - 相同目的地的packet不一定走相同路徑 - packet不會照順序到達 - Advantages - no call-setup - quicker for few packets - avoid congestion (避免壅塞) - reliable (find an alternate route if a node fails) - Virtual Circuit (VC) - 路徑會先建好 - 所有packet 走同一條路 - VC ID: 記錄下一個node要到哪,每過一個node都會更改(減少封包標頭VC欄位長度) - 路徑上的所有router都會參與VC的建立,而且每台router都完全知道通過它的VC - Advantages - assure packet arrived in order - error control: assure packet arrived currently - flow control: receiver 可要求暫停傳送 - more rapidly - packet可能傳到不見 - router當機 - router記憶體不夠 - 線路斷掉 - 線路雜訊 - 處理方法: - 重傳(non-real-time資料)TCP - 算了(real-time資料)UDP - pros - efficiency for bursty traffic - carry out data-rate conversion (不用一定要相同的data rate) - priorities can be used - Packet Size - 大小可以不固定 - size切越小,傳越快(但切太多會變慢) **Delays** [(要會算)](https://blog.gtwang.org/web-development/network-lantency-and-bandwidth/) - propagation delay (傳送時) - transmission time (出介面) - processing delay (考慮位址) - queuing delay (in queue) - latency vs jitter (其實我還是不懂,可是考出來了GG) - latency : delay 就是延遲 - jitter : delay 不同造成的延遲 (variance in delay) **Layered Architecture** - exchange data between two systems - task => subtasks (模組化) - relay on next lower level to perform more primitive functions and conceal the details (抽象化) - change in one layer does not require changes in other layers - protocol 協定(同級layer的溝通規則) - OSI七層 (老式) - TCP/IP五層 - 下到上 L1 ~ L5 (phy 到 app) **OSI (7)** - ISO制定的標準 - protocol: - L1, L2: IEEE set (e.g. L2: MAC frame) - L3: IETF -> IP - L4: IETF -> TCP/UDP ### **1.physical layer** - 實際傳資料 (bit / signal) ### **2.data link layer** - package -> Frame [ header(目標地), message, trailer(偵錯碼)x] - 做錯誤偵測error detection(real end-to-end的偵測, client端要求) - 做錯誤重傳error correction(non-realtime[TCP]才要) - MAC (Medium Access Control) Sub-Layer - Share media rather than "point to point" - Multi-access communication ### **3.network layer** - generate packet header => higher layer for packet info. - 做**flow control**和做**routing** - routing: 找路徑 - flow/congestion control: 路徑選擇 (e.g. 控制流量) - 走別條路 - buffer management - all nodes must work together - 產生和處理control message (ICMP) -> (目標地) ### **4.transport layer** - virtual end-to-end link (出發點到目標點假設值直接end-to-end) - virtual end的錯誤重傳,確認,以免link斷掉/node掛掉 - reassemble packets into messages (reorder) - messages ----> packets --(reorder)--> messages ### **5.session layer**(包在application layer裡就變五層) - 不真實存在 -> 後來發現不需要 (應用層做就好了) - Directory service: 聯絡人要有table才連絡得到 - Load balance - Access rights ### 6.presentation layer(包在application layer裡就變五層) - 不真實存在 -> 後來發現不需要 (應用層做就好了) - encryption 加密 - compression - code conversion (ASCII <--> EBCDIC) ### 7.application layer **TCP/IP (5)** - experimental packet-switched => ARPANET - DARPA - IETF - protocol: - L1, L2: IEEE set (e.g. L2: MAC frame) - L3: IETF -> IP, TCP/UDP - L4: IETF -> port ### **1.Physical layer** ### **2.Network Access Layer** - Addressing - L2: MAC Address: **EA:10:08:EF****:......** - L3: IP Address: **140.113.93.101** - L4: Port number: **80** - Services (e.g. priority) - Many different standard - NAP (Network Access Protocol) ### **3.Internet Layer** - IP (Internet protocol) provides routing) - router: connect two networks ### **4.Transport Layer** - transfer of data between end points - end-to-end error recovery and flow control - TCP / UDP ### **5.Application** **Internetworking** - 將不同網路連在一起 - Internet - Intranet - Bridge - Router **Standardization** - ISO, ITU, IEEE, IETF, ETSI, ANSI, etc... ## 02.phy - analog -> digital - analog - quality, fidelity(保真) - Tech - ASK (amplitude 振幅): 0, 1 - FSK (frequency 頻率): less susceptible to error 較不易錯誤 - [PSK](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%B8%E4%BD%8D%E5%81%8F%E7%A7%BB%E8%AA%BF%E8%AE%8A) (phase 相位): more noise resistant 最不易出錯 - digital - encoding - receiver must know begins and ends - receiver must recognize the value of each bit - the higher the data rate, the more difficult for receiver's task is - multiplexing (多工) - [參考](https://www.csie.ntu.edu.tw/~b6506031/ExpReport/intro_1.html) - carry multiple signal on a single medium - Tech: - FDM(Frequency-division mul...): 不同頻率代表不同傳輸者 - TDM(Time-division mul...): 時間排程 - [CDM](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA)(Code-division mul...): 分碼多重進接 - [Spread Spectrum](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%89%A9%E9%A2%91)(SS) 展頻 - Spread information signal over a wider bandwidth to avoid jamming and interception (傳輸頻寬變大,免疫雜訊干擾) - Type: - [DSSS](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9B%B4%E6%8E%A5%E5%BA%8F%E5%88%97%E6%89%A9%E9%A2%91): 在傳送端,直接用高碼率的展頻碼序列去擴充功能訊號的頻譜,在接收端,用相同的展頻碼序列將訊號解擴 - [FHSS](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%B7%B3%E9%A2%91%E6%89%A9%E9%A2%91): 載波快速在不同頻率中切換,並在接收與發射端使用一種偽隨機的過程 (每次傳的頻率不同,只要對方知道你的hopping patten,就可以接到你的signal,而其他的傳輸者的hopping patten跟你不同就ok) (pseudorandom code) - Transmission Media - Guided media: 實體媒介傳輸 - twisted pair 雙向線: 兩銅線捲起來 - coaxial cable 同軸電纜 - optical fiber 光纖 - Unguided media: ex. 電磁波 - IR (Infrared) 紅外線 - unregulated (無規範的) - diffusely reflected (漫射) - 不穿透的 - security - Interference 干擾 - 低成本 - 會被陽光干擾 noise - directed beam: 一對一 (used for cross-building) - omnidirectional: 全向的 - diffused - Microwave radio - long distance - 穿牆 - regulation 有規範的 - ISM ## **03.Ethernet** - IEEE 802 (LAN) - 802.2: LLC - 802.3: CSMA/CD - 802.4: Token Bus - 802.5: Token Ring - 802.6: MAN - 802.7: Broadband - 802.10: Security - 802.11: Wireless - 802.14: Cable Modem - Ingredients of LAN - LAN/MAN Topology(拓樸) - Bus ![](http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/b/bustopol.gif) - Tree ![](http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/t/tree.jpg) - Bus & Tree - 所有 station 都看得到 - 必須校正傳輸 (MAC) - no need to remove frames from the medium (absorbed by terminator) - 多節點multipoint - MAC protocol: regulate which station on medium may transmit at any point in time - Centralized 集中 - Distributed 分散式 - Signal balancing (訊號要多強) - Divide the medium to smaller segments - Repeater - phy layer 將訊號加強,重複 - 雙向 - in ring, repeater 作用是連接device, 並且是無向的 - 10 base 5 (10 Mbps, baseband, 500m cable) (?) - 2.5m between two taps - maximum of 100 taps in allowed - Ring - 點跟點之間用repeater連接 - 無方向性 - 目標將frame複製到自己的buffer - frame繞一圈回到發送點後回收 - 有token才能傳 (802.3,802.4,802.5) ![](http://www.computerhope.com/jargon/r/ring.gif) ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479018690907_2016-11-13%2014-31-07%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Star - 中心物件 hub - hub功用跟repeater一樣 - Star physically, bus logically (邏輯上其實就是bus只是有分層) - Hierarchical configuration (階層式) - header hub (HHUB) 最高的hub - intermediate hub (IHUB) 中間的hub ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479020439578_2016-11-13%2015-00-09%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Two-Level star Topology - 有兩層的star -> HHUB IHUB 連接 ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479020508723_2016-11-13%2015-01-27%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Hub(第一層) - multiport (跟repeater最大的不同) - like Shared media bus - Hub - only one station can transmit at a time 一次只能有一個傳 - Hub內可以把有問題的msg處理掉 - 10Mbps - LAN Switch (第二層 -> 可以看到目的地) - 用switch(到第二層找路徑,看mac位址), 不會全部都傳, 不會碰撞, 較有效率 - 同時間其他沒用到的路徑還是可以傳(因為第一點的緣故) - 連上去的device不用做任何事情, throughput(傳輸量)就可以增加 - 易擴大 - type of Switch - Store-and-forward - 進來都儲存然後才傳送 - 會做錯誤偵測以及修復 - 優:錯誤率低 - 缺:慢 - cut-through - switch一知道位址就直接傳送 - 優:快 - 缺:錯誤率高 - adaptive switch - 一開始先用cut-through,發現有錯再改成store-and-forward - Protocol Reference Model - Two sublayers in OSI layer 2 - LLC(logical link control): - 802.2 - provide one or more service access points (SAPs) (不只一個接點,模組化) - MAC(medium access control): - 傳送方將data包裝成有address以及erroe-detection fields的frame - 接收方將frame分解(?)然後處理address以及錯誤偵測 - govern(控制) access to the LAN transmission medium ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479023143726_2016-11-13%2015-44-15%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - LLC - similar to other link layer - transmission of a link level PDU (protocol data unit) between two stations, without an intermediate node - different - support multiaccess - 不做error-detection -> 留給mac做 - 由mac解決連接問題 - Two-Level of Addressing - MAC address - 表示硬體的位置 - 點到點(每次到node就會改到下一個) - LLC adderss - 表示LLC使用者(? - LLC address是紀錄使用者而非station(?) - 終端到終端(一個傳出只有一種) ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479024311569_2016-11-13%2016-04-38%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - MAC - polling - 類似開會,主席問誰要發言,如果有多人,只選其中一個 - round robin - 輪流 - reservation - 預約制 - contention - 想傳就傳 - 當傳輸量少的時候,碰撞的幾率小,如bursty network,這個方法的 效率就很好。 - 最常用 - Generic MAC Frame Format ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479024898093_2016-11-13%2016-14-43%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - 錯誤偵測及修復 - MAC - 偵測錯誤並砍掉有錯誤的frames - LLC - 有錯誤的時候重傳 - LAN Protocols in Contex ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479025349073_2016-11-13%2016-21-45%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Bridge(第二層) - no modification(類似郵差,只轉送不修改) - 與router不同點 - 看mac address (local) ; router看ip(全世界) - bridge在第二層 ; router在第三層 - 與switch不同點 - 都在第二層 - bridge是store-and-forward ; switch是兩種都有 - switch速度較快但是貴 - 用來連接兩個以上的LANs - Router(第三層) https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1479027139867_2016-11-13%2016-52-00%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882 - Networking Devices總結 - gateway(4up) - 連接兩個不同的網路系統 - 例如 電話 <-> circuit <-> gateway <-> packet <-> 電腦 - router(3) - bridge (2) - lan switch(2) - multiport bridge - bridge一次只能處理單一frame,而switch可以同時處理多個frames - bridge用store-and-forward,而switch兩種都用 - repeater(1) - hub(1) - multiport repeater - Ethernet LANs (乙太網路) - 802.3 - commercial and light industrial environment - define: - physical layer - mac layer: csma / cd - Pure ALOHA - 想傳就傳,失敗就再傳一次 - 如何知道失敗? 等傳過去又傳回來所需最長時間後,若沒收到回覆(ack)即為失敗 - 任兩個訊息只要稍微交錯到就失敗了 - Slotted ALOHA - 將時間切為許多小段(time slot),只有該時段開始時可以傳 - CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) - 傳之前先聽(listen),若有人在用就等 - 還是可能會失敗: - propagation delay: 已經有人傳了但在聽的時候有時差沒聽見 - 兩個人以上同時在等 - 一樣要等ack - non-persistent CSMA - 發現有人在傳就等一下再聽一次 - 缺:可能會浪費時間,因為不知道何時可以傳 - 優:碰撞率低,因為每個人選擇的時間不一樣 - 1-persistent CSMA - 一直聽直到可以傳 - 優:不浪費時間 - 缺:兩個人以上在等的時候,會碰撞 - p-persistent CSMA - 一直聽直到可以傳(idle) - 可以傳的時候有p的機率會傳,沒傳的話就繼續等 - 每個人傳的機率都不一樣故可降低碰撞率 - 一直再聽所以不會浪費時間 - 決定不傳的話,delay 1 time slot 再決定要不要傳 (中間就沒有listen了) - performance - n stations,np期望值 - np>1必定失敗 - 繼續等的話要跟後面來的人競爭 - throughput(吞吐量) -> 0 - p越小傳的機率越低,等的時間也越久 - CSMA delay 原理上來說,delay 會很長(不適合在廣域網路) - CSMA/CD - 傳的時候同時聽 - 如果傳送失敗(collision),就發出阻斷訊息(jamming signal)通知所有人停止傳送停止傳送 - 最差情況要等多久才偵測到碰撞 - twice the end-to-end propagation delay - persistence in CSMA/CD - 802.3 use 1-persistence - Binary exponential backoff (2^n後回來試) - 2秒試 4秒試 8秒試 ..... - 最多試16次後放棄 - 後傳的人成功機率高,因為兩次之間等待時間短 - Carrier Sense & Collision Detection - A collision should produce substantially higher voltage swings - 因為訊號會衰減,且太長的話要過很久才會知道,所以802.3限制線路最長500m - hub偵測到collision,傳送CP (collision presence) - collision domain (區域內會collision的這個區域) - Auto Negotiation - A station can be automatically configured to run at 10 Mbps or 100 Mbps ## **04. WLAN** - Wireless LAN - 802.11 (b/a/g/n [加速]/i [安全] /e [Queue] /f [協同工作] ) - BSS: basic service set 訊號可達範圍 - STA: station - AP: access point (bridge) - IBSS: **independent** BSS ([ad hoc的](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E7%B7%9A%E9%9A%A8%E6%84%8F%E7%B6%B2%E8%B7%AF) / peer-to-peer) - ESS: extended service set (可以是多個BSS的集合) - AP - multiple BSS connected together form an ESS - mobile stations to access fixed resource - node 間不能互傳,一定要先經過 AP - ad hoc - Direct communication 直接傳 - One BSS - **不需要既有的網路架構**,相互都可以傳,只要有一個BSS給他們傳出去就好了 ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481548954028_2016-12-12%2021-20-30%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Infrastructure - AP (access point -> bridge)和 stations 構成,所有的資料都要通過AP - 離AP越近,傳送越快 - distribution system - 多個BSS串成ESS - allow mobile stations to access fixed resource ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481548934172_2016-12-12%2021-22-04%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Protocol Entities - interact with MAC and PHY - PMB bit -> signal - Modulation(調變) and encoding - PLCP - SAP 讓下層了解上層 - carrier sense 看 channel 是否 busy - MAC - 同步 - 省電 - Roaming: Station 移動時可以自動換到下一個 AP - MIB 網路管理 - MAC entity - 基本機制 - 切封包 - 加密 https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481637485456_2016-12-13%2021-57-42%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882 - 802.11 Services - Association 連線 - Reassociation 移動到下個AP的重連線 - Disassociation 斷線 - Authentication 802.11認證 - Privacy - station to station (not end-2-end) - station to station指加密ap跟station之間 - end to end整段加密 - only payload are encrypted - WEP 已被破解的 MAC entity - Station - No transition - BSS transition 跨 BSS - ESS transition 跨 ESS - Protocol Architecture - PHY - FHSS / DSSS / IR - MAC - 一個MAC可以support多個phy layer - DCF (distributed coordination function) - protocol : polling - contention algorithm - PCF(point coordination function) - optional (沒有用) - Inter Frame Space(IFS) - SIFS(short inter frame space) - transmitor 和 receiver 同一時間只有一個在工作 - 要傳的時候transmitor要打開,打開需要時間 - 硬體運作需要的時間 - 最少需要等這個時間(跟physical layer有關) - PIFS(PCF IFS) - polling需要用的時候需要的時間 - SIFS + slot time(去的時間) - DIFS(DCF IFS) - SIFS + 2* slot time(去+回的時間) ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481640245216_2016-12-13%2022-43-48%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - DCF - collision detection (CD) 不容易做 (但也是作的到) - 因為要**邊聽邊傳** - 用CSMA/CA (collision avoidance) 代替 - 聽到IDLE不傳,直到DIFS過後沒人傳才傳 - 還是可能撞 -> 兩個人同時 - 2種傳法 - 如果一聽就是IDLE,等DIFS後就直接傳 - 如果一聽是busy, 等到IDLE時要等cWindow,避免是很多人都在等IDLE - 傳完的 cWindow 是為了不要讓傳過的人再搶到channel, 讓別人也有機會傳 - 聽到medium是busy時,聽到DIFS後也不傳,繼續等contention window (random 0~7) ,如果等的時候有人傳了就停下來等medium IDLE,等完後把沒等完的contention window等完如果是IDLE才傳 - 因為ramdom 0~7 撞到的機率低 - 傳完的人必須再等一個contention window - PHY layer 有 CCA (clear channel assessment) 會作carrier sense ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481641164862_2016-12-13%2022-59-15%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - CSMA/CA + ACK - UniCast : 一對一傳輸 - desitination收到的時候要等SIFS的時間才ack - 確定資料是對的 - receive轉成transmit正好需要SIFS的時間 ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481644934390_2016-12-14%2000-02-06%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - 傳回去的ack一定不會跟別人collsion,因為SIFS比較短 - hidden terminal - C因為在A的訊號範圍外,所以A不知道C的存在(反之亦然) - CSMA/CA會有問題 ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481645163704_2016-12-14%2000-05-55%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - AC都要傳給B但是AC互相不知道對方存在(聽不到是否在傳),故可能會碰撞 - virtual sensing - 為了解決hidden terminal的問題 - RTS: request-to-send - CTS: clear-to-send - 要傳的人發出RTS給目標,目標收到後會發出CTS告訴所有人它在某段時間已經被預訂了 - NAV(Net Allocation Vector) 表示某段時間 Contain a duration field that defines theperiod of time the medium is to be reserved - RTS thershold : data沒有長到一個程度,不要用virtual sensing,因為搞不好直接傳就好了 - PCF - contention free - Protocol : centralized polling master - 主席,負責問誰要傳還有決定誰可以傳 - Superframe - PCF和DCF交互使用 - PCF和DCF在不同時間要傳,如果時間內傳不完,就把下一段的DCF時間移過來用,PCF時間則不變,使下次的DCF時間減少 - Scanning - Initial setup - Infrastructure 找network - ad hoc找IBSS - Roaming - 找新AP - Passive Scanning - AP自己大喊我在這裏 (Beacon) - Active Scanning - 使用者問說那裡有AP,然後AP回說我在這 (Probe) - 會回覆可以加入一個network所需要的資訊 - beacon 服務設定識別碼 - roaming approach - SNR(signal noise ratial) = S/N - SNR<40%時找 (太早找會找不到) - 另一個AP的SNR>50%時連上 - PCF vs DCF - 當channel is busy,一個人用PCF,一個人用DCF,當一idle的時候,誰會先搶到? - PCF。因為PIFS 等的時間比較短。(短於DIFS) - 乒乓效應(Ping - Pong effect):一高過現有訊號就換的話,訊號可能又會降下來,所以又換回來,換來換去稱為乒乓效應 - power management - 能睡就睡,隔一段時間後醒來看有沒有人要送(ap會說),睡的時候AP幫收 - 802.11b - 傳輸率最高爲11Mbps - 離AP太遠可能會降到1Mbps - 802.11a - 2.4GHz的干擾太嚴重 - 用5.8GHz - 802.11n - improving 802.11a && 802.11g - 54Mbps~600Mbps - 增加了 multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) - 多根天線 - 802.11e - 改善MAC quality of service (QoS) - 利用SIFS和contention來提高一個人的成功率 - SIFS短 / contention window 短 成功率高 - enhanced distributed channel access (EDCA) - 改善DCF - 增加AIFS (4 level >= DIFS) - 有限次數可以傳成功後不用等contention window - Wi-Fi(Wireless Fidelity)Certification - Wi-Fi,不是一種網絡,是一種certification - 是802.11網絡的認證 ## **05. Supplementary: Security** - encryption - Enciphering (encryption) 加密 - plaintext (cleartext) -> ciphertext - Deciphering (decryption) 解密 - ciphertext -> plaintext (cleartext) - two categories - Secret-key algorithm - 用同一把密鑰來作加解密 - DES(Data Encryption Standard) - AES(Advanced Encryption Standard) - Ex.鎖頭 - Public-key algorithm - 用不同的鑰匙來作加解密 - RSA - Ex.喇叭鎖 - Secret-key algorithm - Transposition Ciphering - 交換順序 - Substitution Ciphering - 代換 - DES (Data Encryption Standard) - 原始資料切斷,每段64bits,先排列以後,每段再進行subtitution and transposition - AES (Advanced Encryption Standard) - NIST制定 - AES-128/192/256 (數字表示key的長度) - Public-Key Algorithm - Public Key任何人都可以拿到 - Secret (private) key 只有擁有者有 - plaintext -> **public key** -> ciphertext -> **secret key** -> plaintext - RSA - 兩個很大的質數相乘得到public key - Message Authentication - assure data integrity and to authenticate the data origin - 解出來是對的˙的話,代表資料正確且確實是secret key的擁有者傳的 - Message Authentication Code (MAC) - one-way hash function - hash: 將任意長度的訊息變成一段固定長度的訊息 https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481527664691_2016-12-12%2015-27-13%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882 - hash function - Unkeyed hash - **no secret key** between the communicating parties - MD5 - produce an 128-bit fingerprint or message digest - 接收者從收到的訊息產生digest再拿去跟收到的比對 - SHA-1 - 160-bit message digest - Keyed hash - HMAC ## **06. ARQ** - 為甚麼要ARQ - 資料傳送會有錯誤 - Error detection - Parity Check (算整個bitstream contains odd/even 1) - CRC - Error Correction - 直接更正錯誤的frame - Retransmission - 錯誤的frame直接重傳 - ARQ - 分類 - Stop and Wait ARQ (Go back 1) - Go Back N ARQ - Selective and Repeat ARQ - 實作 - Node A (Trasmitter) 傳送資料,Node B (receiver)接收資料,並回傳ack如果正確,回傳nak (negative ack)如果packet出錯 - 缺點: delay is arbitrary and some packets are never to be arrived - 解法 : LLC Header 包含Serial number (SN) - 還是有問題,可以比較兩者packet是否相等,但還是identical就掛了 - 解法 : 回傳的Packet 也要編號 (RN) - 重傳(Go Back N )是全部都傳,只傳錯的叫Selective and Repeat (不好做) - SN/RN in LLC frame - 對於transmitter,要填SN、packet - 對於receiver,要填RN,但沒有packet - RN只要填在等的SN就不用區分ack/nak - 假設A傳1失敗,B傳1(nak) - A傳1成功,B傳2(ack) - Piggy Backing - 用在兩個node互傳做其他事情的時候順便回會填SN(別人的)、會填RN(別人的)、也會給Packet - 舉例 : 我去買酒的時候順便去幫弟弟買菸 - SN/RN 變大怎麼辦? - 同時modulo(模)一個數就好 - Stop and wait ARQ : Modulo 2 - Go Back N ARQ : Modulo N - Go Back N ARQ - Why Go Back N? - 因為Rn回來需要時間,可以連續送n筆資料不需要等ack,Node B 的運作方式跟stop and wait 一樣 - N : how many successive packets can be sent in the absense of a request for a new packet - Allow to send packet i+n-1 before i has been acked - ARQ解題小技巧(你不用懂ARQ是甚麼就會算) ![](https://i.imgur.com/jNNbSGQ.png) - Node A SN 就是一路0、1、2填下去 - 更新window: 看著A吃到的箭頭,往回對,她左邊的RN 如果是X, window 要填[X,X+N] - 更新RN: 看著B吃到的箭頭,往回對,如果對到號碼一樣,收下來,RN+1,下一個要填的RN就是frame傳送前一刻的RN - 如果對到號碼不一樣,代表回傳nak,RN不會變 - 代表我要的packet沒有來 - 這時候會觸發time out(超過window的upper bound) - 回傳出錯怎麼辦 - Window 不會動 - 有可能會導致重傳 ![](https://i.imgur.com/B3vIqWt.png) - 這裡為甚麼2直接接4? - 因為收到4的ack,代表3成功收到,不用重傳 - 不想要的重傳 - 即使沒有error也會重傳 - 發生在short frame in one side,long frame in another - ![](https://i.imgur.com/uokIxMS.png) - RN太長了,累計了太多SN,node A遲遲收不到ack因此timeout - Link Layer (L2) v.s. Transport Layer (L4) - 相同 - Frame、packet 可能會出錯 - delay可能會不一樣 - 相不同 - two nodes with a link in between in L2 - two sites with a link in between in L4 - All frames using the link are sequentially numbered at L2 - sequence numbering involves only the packets of a given session at L4 - Frames must stay in order in a link - Packets may arrived out of order - end - to - end link in L2 - virtual end - to - end link in L4 ## **07. LLC** - 待更新xD - why LLC - ARQ怎麼放到protocol裡面 - 802.2 LLC 是一種標準 - Primitives and Parameters - Primitive : 最基本的服務(像function name) - Parameters : 額外增加的東西(像 Parameter) - 在802.2要重傳要用ARQ,不用就不用 - LLC服務種類 - Connection-mode service - 兩個要互傳要先把連線建起來 - 一對一 (unicast) - 有error recovery / flow control - Unacknowledged connectionless service - connectionless : 想傳的人想傳就傳,不管要收的人要不要收 - unacknowledged : 不會回ack - 沒有error control / flow control - Acknowledged connectionless service - 會回ack的 connection less service - Support individual, multicast, and broadcast addressing - multicast 可以針對, broadcast 是所有人都收 - Reset - 可能因為out of synchronization - 可能不想斷掉重新連 - LLC Class - 說自己可以支援哪些type - 如Class IV 可以支援 Type 1~3 - SAP - LLC的地址 - LLC PDU - ![](https://i.imgur.com/HCcGg6y.png) - control 可能有 8 bit / 16 bit ,有三種格式 - Information - Supervisory - Unnumbered - 有 PiggyBacking : information - 前面的一兩個bit是要判斷哪種種類的 - Source Address - I/G : Individual/Group 這個bit不是I就是G - I bit is used for unicast, G bit is used for multicast - C/R : Command/Response 這個bit不是C就是R - Control - 當C/R是C的時候,P/F(Poll/Final)要用P來解釋 - 相反,當C/R是R的時候,P/F要用F來解釋 - Poll 設成1的時候,代表一定要回 - 回的時候有很多PDU,回的最後(Final)一個PDU,F設成1代表傳完了 - Supervisory - error control / flow control - 因為兩個 S bit,有四種組合(實際用了三種) - RR : ack收到了 - RNR : ack收到了,但還沒有ready(做flow control) - REJ : 沒收到ack,傳回nak - Unnumbered - various control message - 有五個bit可以控制,Unnumber 最短 PDU lingth = 24 - information 可能會塞東西,例如Go back N 的 N 等等 - information - carry user data - Type I operation - Unnumbered PDU - 有一種Unnumberd PDU 叫做UI PDU - is used to transfer user data - 另外一種叫做 XID PDU (exchange PDU) - Exchange “type of operation” supported, and “window size” - 交換資料用 - Type II、Type III也會用 - 還有一種叫做 Test PDU - 測試有沒連線成功用 - Loop-Back Test : 不傳出去,只在自己的Protocol Stack跑 - Type II operation - connection-mode - 三種PDU (Information,Supervisory,Ummumbered) 都用到了 (Piggy Back) - 三個Phase(相位) - connection establishment - 用到了Unnumbered PDU - data transfer - 用到了Information + Supervisory PDU - connection termination - 用到了Unnumbered PDU - Type III operation - 必須要回ack - 收到之後用AC回 ## **08.IP** ## - ip功能 - addressing - route packets - fragmentation - 把資料切得很小塊 - 分開送 - IP Address - 代表ID和位置 - a specific ip address can only be used in a specific subnet - 優點 : routing table 變小 - 缺點 : 一移動就會斷線 - IP routing只要看netid就知道要送到哪個地區,接著再由那個地區來送,因此不需要擁有所有hosts的表 - Format of IPv4 Address ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481545142725_2016-12-12%2020-18-47%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Subnet - subnet mask 決定subnet要切在那裡 ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481545580064_2016-12-12%2020-25-19%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - Supernetting (classless addressing) - 很多個ip prefixes指定給同一個組織 - Ex. NCTU(140.112.0.0 , 3) -> 140.112 ~ 140.114 都是交大的 - CIDR Address and Mask - ip prefixes的表示法 - xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx/z -> z表示從最前面開始有幾個bit是固定的 ![](https://hackpad-attachments.imgix.net/nctucs08course.hackpad.com_1u8lA1PnbR9_p.672309_1481546418281_2016-12-12%2020-40-05%20的螢幕擷圖.png?fit=max&w=882) - ex : 10/8 代表從10.0.0.0開始一樣附屬於mask長度8的地方 - lowest : 10.0.0.0 - higest : 10.255.255.255 - IPV4 header - at least 20 bytes (option) - ver : 判斷是IPV4 還是 IPV6 - IHL : specify header 有多長 - service type (給某些人方便) - total length : specify payload 有多長 - time to live : 可以經過幾個 router/hub 再多的話就丟掉那個packet - 因為太多可能 packet is considered 壞掉. - Header Checksum - 檢查錯誤 - Padding - header 有規定要幾個 byte,把它補起來 - 欺敵,竊聽者不知道你 packet 真正的長度 - 跟 fragmentation 有關的欄位 - identifier : 相同的一組 data 寫一樣 - fragmentation offset : 第一塊填0,第二塊填1等等 - flag : 用來 identify 最後一塊,最後一塊設為1 - 收的人有辦法根據這三個欄位,把 fragmentationed 的資料組回來 - Protocol - Protocol id is used to identify layer-4 protocol such as TCP or UDP - routing table - 告訴router要怎麼傳或是下一站在哪 - 有一個問題: 資料通過router時,router不能改dest. IP address,要怎麼辦? - 解法: 透過MAC層,比如說Source 傳給router B,MAC 的 source 依然是 source,但dest. 是 router,有點像寄信時郵差分類的帆布袋,再送給郵政總局 - 總局 (router) 送給另一個總局 (router),只動 mac address (暫時的地址),而不改變IP Header (你家&別人家的地址) - 每次傳的 MAC address 都不一樣 - Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) - 解決不知道 MAC 地址的問題 - source 大喊 (broadcast) 說誰有地址 (send ARP request) ? - 發現有的就回答 (give ARP reply) - ARP cache : 問一次就把他記起來 - 缺點 : routing 變了就不能送 - solution : 如果要送的人要跑走主動講 - solution : 自己- Proxy ARP - Gratuitous ARP - 自己走自己回 - Proxy ARP - 幫別人代回 - Broadcast - 對象: 同一個 subnet - Directed Broadcast - 假設要 broadcast 到 140.113.62.125 - 要知道 subnet id,broadcast到 140.113.62.255 - 255代表 broadcast,平常不能用 - Broadcast a packet on a remote network to a specific network - Limited Broadcast - Address with thirty-two 1s - 255.255.255.255 - May be used as part of a startup procedure - Special IP Address - 要求IP address 用,有時候需要問某個 server 自己的 ip 多少,但又沒有 ip 導致聯不上的矛盾情況 - source 全部填 0 ,dest 全部填 1 - Loopback : 127 開頭, never be a vaild ip,用來 run 一遍整個protocol stack - Address Authority - ICANN : 現在管理世界ip位址的機構,也是階層式的架構放給各國 - 可以要求 domain name 等等(ex:nctu.edu.tw) - DNS server : 把 domain name 跟 ip address 合起來 - BOOTP - 1990年代沒有硬碟,但要連上 internet ,開機的時候取得 ip address - 是 DHCP 的前身 - DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol) - 目的 : 在 configure 你的 host - 動態幫你分配一個 IP address - 因為 IP address 有限,但可以連的人很多 - Address issue - static - 永遠給你 - dynamic - 需要再給你,不需要就收回 - 第5層 (Application level) 的 protocol - 用來 configure 第3層的ip位址 - Movable network : 換到別的地方還是能連 - Client-Server architecture - client : 使用者 - server : 給 ip 服務的人(例如計中) - A mechanism rather than a policy - server 把 subnet mask, default gateway 還有 ip address 傳給client - Automatic allocation - DHCP 常用 - Manual allocation - 遠端給真人手動給一個 ip address - Terminology - Lease : 給一個 ip 位址可以用多久 - DHCP Message ![](https://i.imgur.com/mkzyask.png) - initialization - DHCPDISCOVER... protocol 規定的寫法 - DHCPDISCOVER : 對網路 broadcast - DHCPOFFER : server 給 client位址 - DHCPREQUEST: 如果有多個的話,選一個回 request (我要定這個位址了!) - DHCPACK : 確定收到地址 - Graceful shutdown - ip位址不要的時候,主動傳 DHCPRELEASE 來跟 server 說 - 重連的時候: 不用那麼麻煩 - 只要送 request 跟 ack就好 - Subsequent ignored - ![](https://i.imgur.com/GPhTBxT.png) - Reacquisition and Expiration in DHCP - 續約的方式 - 兩個timer T1,T2 - T1 expired : 要找自己的 server (renewing state) 比較短 - T2 expired : 去找別的 server (rebinding state) 比較長 - Nat (Network address translation) - 因為IPv4最多只能有$2^{32}$個 - 把 address 轉換 - 通常是 private ip address 透過 NAT router 轉成 public address 連出去 - 也可以是 public 轉 public 等等 - 可以 IPv4 轉 IPv6 or 相反 - 一個 public ip address 可以對應多個 private address - IP分享器 : 就是一個例子 - 優點: security 經過轉換的地址就不知道在哪裡 - 有分 srcNAT, dstNAT - NAPT (PAT) - 只有一個 public address - 有很多 private address - 利用 port number - **理論上** ICMP 等沒有 port 的協定無法支援 - NAPT operation - 這兩張圖,是給兩個 private address 192.168.1.4 / 192.168.1.8 用的 - 三個階段 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/IKPR74g.png) - ![](https://i.imgur.com/ilMcmZK.png) - before translating - source port : 對外 IP address 對應的 port - source IP : 對外的 IP address - destiation port : NAT server 的 port - destiation IP : NAT server 的IP - Look up mapping table in NAT - 去對照Private port 以及其所對應的IP address - Inbound packet after translating - source port : 對外 IP address 對應的 port - source IP : 對外的 IP address - destiation port : private IP 對應的 port - destiation IP : private IP - 透過NAT server當中繼站,轉錄跟轉譯IP ## **09.TCP** ## - (2018 Fall 沒教完) - 第四層叫Transport layer - UDP - 不重傳 - header 只有 source port 跟 destiation port - port number : 第四層的地址 - SAP 也是 port number - TCP Header - source/dest port : 就是地址 - Sequence number : SN ,用 Go Back N 或 Selective-repeat ARQ - Window Size : 意義 : 連續傳 N 個不用等packet回來 - ![](https://i.imgur.com/lhhAR6U.png) - TCP Error Control/Flow Control - Error Control : 就是出錯了就重傳 - [Flow Control](https://notfalse.net/24/tcp-flow-control) 兩種方法 : - [Congestion](https://notfalse.net/28/tcp-congestion-control) : 用RTP來看 - RTP一大,就不傳,大到一個地步就動他的Window size - timeout : 不讓太多的flow通過 - TCP Port - Numbers less than 1024 are well-known port - 常用的port - 21 : FTP - 22 : SSH - 80 : HTTP - 443 : HTTPS ## **Appendix : Homework & Past Paper** ##

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