# 愛奧尼亞自然哲學的特質

## 宗教批判

> 人們注意到某件事物的意義，一定都是在它正要消失的時候

公元前八世紀 《神譜》（赫西俄德）

公元前七世紀 愛奧尼亞最繁榮

公元前六世紀 愛奧尼亞諸都市崩壞，泰勒斯不以奧林帕斯山的眾神為理由解釋世界 原因︰他認為城邦是基於社會契約而成立的，而不是來自眾神或氏族的傳統 （自然哲學作為社會哲學）

原始物質（Arche) ︰related to Mythical cosmogonies

> Anaximander was the first philosopher that used arche for that which writers from Aristotle onwards called "the substratum" (Simplicius Phys. 150, 22). The Greek philosophers ascribed to arche divine attributes. It is the divine horizon of substance that encompasses and values all things.

外憂內患︰

利底亞的侵略
泰勒斯想組織諸都市聯合（起大台？）－＞失敗
－各城邦貧富差距，出現「支配／被支配」關係
「民主改革」︰由基於社會契約的團體，轉而強調為氏族的、神話的共同體

－Isonomia解體，開始了民主主義式的改革—大部分導致Tyrann 統治 (有民眾支持，因為社會的確需要改革)

e.g.Polycrates（波利克拉底） —放棄與畢達哥拉斯一起做的政治改革，成為了獨裁者 （契弟？）統治薩摩斯島

Anaximander︰「存在的諸事物，必然朝向它所生成的源頭滅亡消失。因為這些事物，交互於命定的時機，對其不正而受罰，付出代價。」

why？ why自然會有懲罰、賠償等意義？

## 運動的物質

愛奧尼亞自然哲學：自然(Physis)
原初 (Archē；gr. ἀρχή; lat. principium):

泰勒斯(Thales):水
阿那克斯曼德(Anaximander):無限之物(Apeiron;τὸ ἄπειρον)生成四大元素（水木氣火）
Wiki:https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%B4%BE%E6%9C%97
無限制之物=基底 Hypokeimenon( ὑποκείμενον;lat.subiectum/substratum)
Wiki:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypokeimenon
柄：無限制之物= Abstract idea （相比泰勒斯嘅水），更似赫西俄德嘅混沌

重點：運動(Motion;becoming/*werden*）；形而上學——宇宙觀**有別於** 雅典哲學家（Plato/Aristoteles)發展嘅形而上學(Metaphysics)
Excurse to Aristoteles Metaphysic, especially philosophical terminology *Substance*:
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/substance/#UndeIdea

柏拉圖：沒有自動嘅物質(substance)蒂邁歐篇(Timaeus)：宇宙/理型係由Demiurge 所造
> 5. Myths in the Timaeus
> Since the cosmology reveals what is reasonable in the eikōn made by the Demiurge, it may rightly be called eikōs, “reasonable”. The Demiurge’s reasoning, however, is practical, not theoretical. The Demiurge, Burnyeat claims, works with given materials, and when he creates the cosmos, he does not have a free choice, but has to adjust his plans to them. Although we know that the Demiurge is supremely benevolent towards his creation, none of us could be certain of his practical reasons for framing the cosmos the way he did. That is why anyone aiming at disclosing them cannot but come up with “probable” answers. Plato’s cosmology is then eikōs in the two senses of the word, for it is both “reasonable” and “probable”. But why does Plato call it a muthos? Because, Burnyeat argues, the Timaeus cosmology is also a theogony (for the created cosmos is for Plato a god), and this shows Plato’s intention to overcome the traditional opposition between muthos and logos.
> More on: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/#MytTim

Aristoteles: 接受部分自然哲學（物質自動性），運動(motion)係通過物質內部嘅原因（causae）而發生
四種原因：(1) Material (2) Efficient (3) Final (4) Formal
Aristoteles: 自然哲學= 1&2，但3&4只可喺運動發生後先可被認知(postfactum)
Final Cause= 目的因(telos): teleological arguments for god existence
> If there is some immovable substance, this [that is, theological philosophy] will be prior and will be primary philosophy, and it will be universal in this way, namely, because it is primary. And it will belong to it to get a theoretical grasp on being qua being, both what it is and the things that belong to it insofar as it is being. (E.1, 1026a29–32)

## 制作與生成

Poiesis=to make 制作，整啲未有過嘅嘢出來

**亞里士多德：自然生成vs人爲制作 對立**
- 自然學以事物爲對象，無制作者，並非實踐嘅學問
- 佢覺得自然有目的因（Final cause），因爲將「神/創造者」放入自然之中

1. 物質因 material cause: “that out of which”, e.g., the bronze of a statue.
2. 形式因 formal cause: “the form”, “the account of what-it-is-to-be”, e.g., the shape of a statue.
3. 動力因 efficient cause: “the primary source of the change or rest”, e.g., the artisan, the art of bronze-casting the statue, the man who gives advice, the father of the child.
4. 目的因 final cause: “the end, that for the sake of which a thing is done”, e.g., health is the end of walking, losing weight, purging, drugs, and surgical tools.


**愛奧尼亞學派：拒絕目的因**
- 自然生成不具備目的
- 制作具備目的
- 愛奧尼亞自然哲學家重視制作與技術，以之來思考生成

**愛奧尼亞自然哲學以工業經驗爲基礎**
- 物質分離聚合，演變出物種，生長出其他物質
- 通過物理、實踐認識，而非形而上

泰勒斯徒弟 阿那克西曼德 Anaximandros 認爲萬物根源係 Apeiron（無限嘅嘢），一啲無界限、無盡、循環嘅嘢就喺宇宙嘅基礎，而呢啲「無」產生對立、變化、冷熱、乾濕，不斷循環。但Anaximandros亦研究歷史、文化、考究希臘文字、地理等

- 魚作爲早期生命形態，之後先有陸棲動物，包括人都係由魚演化而成

**Anaximenes**：空氣係原始物質
**Thales**：水係原始物質
**Democritus 德謨克利特**：萬物的本源是原子與虛空。原子是一種最後的不可分的物質微粒。宇宙的一切事物都是由在虛空中運動着的原子構成。所為事物的產生就是原子的結合。
**Empedocles**：以四元素（水火氣土）結合分離，解釋世界生成，先有植物，之後動物，亦假設咗兩性繁殖之前嘅生物階段（物競天擇，適者生存嘅先驅）

**愛奧尼亞自然學家想法來自工程嘅啓示**
- Anaximenes從紡織材料得到啓示，觀察液體材料蒸發、乾燥、凝固、濃縮
- 愛奧尼亞自然哲學家排除目的論，思考宇宙生成、生命出現、物種進化，進一步思考人類社會歷史發展
- 即係話，自然秩序嘅變化、事物嘅發展，在於偶然或必然，無需要有特定目的
- 相反，雅典哲學家（亞里士多德）即管嘗試繼承愛奧尼亞自然學，但依據生物學去解釋物種如何存續，但無法解釋新物種點樣演化
- 「成體是潛在於胚芽之物的現實化」：亞里士多德之形式因（formal cause）、目的因（final cause）
- 亞里士多德收割愛奧尼亞自然哲學觀點，並以目的論方式去解讀
- 目的論貫穿亞里士多德自然秩序，見於《政治學》《倫理學》，譬如「城邦係爲咗美好生活而存在」
- 目的論：將制作/技藝具備「目的/用途」呢種理解，帶入自然生成，譬如物種演化被目的同形式所規範

->道、器？
*《易》「形而上者謂之道，形而下者謂之器」
道是無形的，含有規律和準則的意義;器是有形象的，指具體事物或名物制度。*

無名天地之始，有名萬物之母

**達爾文進化論**
- 排除目的論，來思考進化（「伴隨住修改嘅繁衍」Descent with modification 而非「進化」）
- 關注品種改良嘅經驗；自然選擇同品種改良有咩唔同？
- aka 生成 同 制作 有咩唔同？
- 新品種：基因偶然變異嘅結果，某啲品種存活落來
- 「適者生存」：變異彷彿有特定目的，又回到進化/目的因
- 達爾文：將「偶然性」放到最根底之處，排斥目的性，呼應愛奧尼亞自然哲學

愛奧尼亞進化論喺伊斯蘭世界得到承傳
- Al-Jahiz 阿爾札希茲《爲生存而努力》
- 關於生物生存的機會和環境影響
- Ibn Miskawayh：人類生命發展歷史
- 文藝復興時期，著作翻譯成拉丁文，傳回歐洲

**馬克思唯物論**
- 論文《德謨克利特的自然哲學和伊比鳩魯的自然哲學之區別》
- Differenz der demokritischen und epikureischen Naturphilosophie (The Difference Between the Democritean and Epicurean Philosophy of Nature) (1841)
- Democritus Atomism 原子論，以及Epicurus Contingency 偶然性
- 馬克思理論：「自由抑或命定」？

原子嘅主體性

> According to Marx, their approaches to sensation (sensuous perception) and reason (self-consciousness), the ontology of phenomenal appearances and being,the validity of empiricism and universal concepts, scientific explanation and natural causes, and the nature of science in general reflect different philosophies.
>
> In his articulation of these differences lies Marx’s originality, and, more importantly,lie many of the seminal ideas that will later become **the foundation for his views on the science and method of his critique of political economy. **
>
> As he presents theancient philosophy of nature and science, the discussion between Democritusand Epicurus becomes a debate between empiricism and idealism, respectively.
>

**Epicurus**
In a world of constantly moving atoms, there are three forms ofatomic motion: a fall in a straight line due to gravity, deviation or declinationfrom a straight line, and the mutual repulsion of many atoms. For Epicurus, it isthe deviation from the natural fall of atoms, their accidental swerving, and theircombination that produce the objects of nature.

**The real difference** between the two philosophers at this level isthat Democritus’ theory of the atom begins and ends with its **materiality**. Epicur-us, on the other hand, in more Hegelian fashion, develops a theory of substancethat introduces the idea of the atom as an **expression of the subject or spirit**—theconcept of the atom—rather than as a manifestation of a material element only.

And it is this notion of **a pure concept of the atom** that produces for Marx the interesting questions within Greek physics about the nature of science, its external reference in the world ofmaterial objects, and the validity of its theories.