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    # 哲學的起源 愛奧尼亞的社會與思想 --- # 第一章:愛奧尼亞的社會與思想 # 1. 雅典與愛奧尼亞 概要:一般認知裏面屬於雅典城邦嘅特徵,原來來自愛奧尼亞?雅典一方面接受愛奧尼亞思想與政治影響,一方面壓制呢份影響,成爲古希臘最強大嘅城邦。要睇古希臘哲學嘅起源,就要質疑以雅典爲中心嘅觀點,而考究愛奧尼亞自然哲學嘅樣貌,。 **哲學嘅起源** - 考究喺愛奧尼亞城邦出現嘅「模範先知」,同埋佢哋嘅思想源流 - 雖然現今啲人將愛奧尼亞自然哲學,當作自然科學嘅先驅,但愛奧尼亞哲學嘅其他領域,湮沒喺歷史之中 - 雅典哲學家(柏拉圖、亞里士多德)造成呢種偏見,佢哋主張真正嘅哲學始於雅典,愛奧尼亞不過係哲學嘅萌芽 - 柏拉圖:蘇格拉底將哲學由對外在自然嘅研究,轉爲對社會同人類各種行爲同目的嘅研究 - 亞里士多德:蘇格拉底令哲學首次去思考倫理問題 - 「雅典作爲哲學起源」呢個偏見根深蒂固 - 因爲後人淨係能夠通過現存柏拉圖、亞里士多德嘅記載,先至得以窺探愛奧尼亞思想家嘅言行事蹟,其他資料通通佚失 - 愛奧尼亞學派:柏拉圖筆下所謂physiologoi,即係自然學者,嘗試用推理而非神話/宗教嚟解釋自然現象 - 雅典中心主義:通過雅典哲學家嘅視覺、哲學框架、對歷史嘅裁切同篩選,無法全面理解愛奧尼亞思想 **「我來自愛奧尼亞?」** - 愛奧尼亞:愛琴海、小亞細亞沿岸一帶,由來自希臘本土嘅移民建立嘅都市羣 - 前七-六世紀,以愛奧尼亞聯盟 Ionic League 形態出現 - 愛奧尼亞語係古希臘文一種方言,同其他希臘文相似 - 愛奧尼亞方言同雅典方言同屬Ionic-Attic Group - 被認爲雅典式嘅事物,好多都來自愛奧尼亞 - 表音文字(腓立基文字) - 荷馬作品以愛奧尼亞方言寫成 - 希臘人之中。愛奧尼亞人最先鑄造貨幣 - 市場而非官僚決定價格,民主政治嘅主要成因 - 愛奧尼亞發展海外貿易 - 航海商貿發達,愛奧尼亞聚集咗埃及、美索不達米亞等,東地中海、亞細亞區域嘅科學、技術、宗教同思想 - 然而,愛奧尼亞無變成喺亞細亞地區普遍嘅專制國家,無採用官僚制、常備軍、傭兵制、國家價格管制等等,並將做法影響鄰近地區 **希臘城邦緣起** - 希臘城邦作爲政治共同體,以人嘅自主選擇爲基礎,即係話理論上人可以自由選擇歸屬嘅城邦,唔同於部落或家族呢啲靠血緣爲基礎嘅組織 - 但原來唔係所有希臘城邦都係咁樣,曾幾何時城邦都係氏族社會,由多個氏族聯合一齊,聚居建立城市 - 雅典就喺例子: - 家族 Oikia、氏族 Genos、兄弟團 Phratria、部族 Phyle,四大部族 - 雖然唔係氏族社會,仍有強烈氏族傳統 - 前508年,克里斯提尼 Cleisthenes 嘅改革:廢除氏族,建立Demos(區)作爲城邦內嘅政治單位 - 但雅典並無超越血緣,並無以個人自主作爲社會契約基礎 - 公民權仍然以血緣決定,外國人、奴隸無份 **政體嘅發展軌跡:都市國家、專制國家** - 歷史上,世界各地嘅都市國家,都由部族聯合體所構成,經過互相鬥爭,形成專制國家(王權) - 專制國家即係中央集權,一君萬臣 - 例如以色列人,由部族聯合體,去到大衛王、所羅門王時期,變成亞細亞式專制國家 - 例如日本古代,飛鳥時期聖德太子推動大化革新,建立中央政府,實行官階十二位、土地公有制、律令制,徵收貴族擁有嘅農地,由官員向人民徵稅,改用俸祿同官職養起貴族,從而強化王權,削弱貴族權力 - 用今日嘅語言:公務員pay scale 0-49,特首收曬啲地,委任地產商家族做曬司局長 - 但古希臘人保存強烈氏族習俗,無發展出專制國家,而係形成諸多自治(自律 autonomous)嘅城邦 - 古希臘人之前嘅希臘地區文明(邁錫尼、克里特)演變成專制國家,但古希臘人無跟呢條發展軌跡 - 反而將氏族整合入民主體制,克里斯提尼改革 *邁錫尼文明(英語:Mycenaean Greece,前1600年 – 前1100年) 是希臘青銅時代晚期的文明,它由伯羅奔尼撒半島的邁錫尼城而得名。這是古希臘青銅器時代的最後一個階段。* *邁諾斯文明(Minoan civilization),是愛琴海地區的古代文明,出現於古希臘,邁錫尼文明之前的青銅時代,約公元前3000年—前1100年。該文明的發展主要集中在克里特島。* - 點解?古希臘人保持兩個原理:(1)拒絕國家;(2)保持氏族社會。兩件事唔相同,但氏族社會抗拒國家形成,因爲國家(交換模式B——掠奪與再分配)取代氏族(交換模式A——互酬)作爲政治共同體,作爲政治權力、資源嘅再分配者,威脅傳統氏族。 - 但,一旦氏族社會接受文明,就唔會繼續抵抗,反而轉向補強國家結構。(因爲氏族發現只要把持國家體制,亦有利氏族生存。等如貴族門閥。) - 譬如古日本,律令制一實施,即刻被有力貴族佔據高位。「蔭位制」下,五位以上嘅官位自動世襲。貴族例如藤原氏幾百年把持朝政。氏族利用國家結構生存嘅例證。 - 古希臘人一方面否定氏族社會原理(發展民主制),一方面喺較高層次,回復氏族社會之中抵抗國家形成嘅原理(抵抗君主專制),結果發展出城邦 **愛奧尼亞** - 一面否定氏族,一面回復氏族抵抗國家形成,呢種現象出現喺愛奧尼亞 - 如果無愛奧尼亞思想、政治影響,雅典未必會發展出後來佢嘅文化同政治特徵 - 返返到哲學,雅典嘅哲學,就係接受咗愛奧尼亞思想影響,同時爲求超越佢而所作嘅努力 - 哲學嘅起源,唔單係哲學問題,而係關乎政治嘅問題 # 2. Isonomia與Democracy 愛奧尼亞思想對今日影響深遠 e.g.荷馬(古代威漫?) 醫護執業誓詞 自由與平等本身有矛盾 (Carl Schmitt語) 而在交換模式D中,自由與平等可以共存 ionia有超多移民-難以形成強勢氏族社會 ionia居民冇地不會做農奴、受僱,只會去其他地方搵地來耕 # 3. 雅典的Democracy [Lydia 與 Persia 征服](https://www.infoplease.com/encyclopedia/history/classical/greece/ionia/conquest-and-reconquest)愛奧尼亞 > There came to be 12 major cities—Miletus, Myus, Priene, Sámos, Ephesus, Colophon, Lebedos, Teos, Erythrae, Khíos, Clazomenae, and Phocaea. A religious league (which reached its full power in the 8th cent. BC) was formed, with its center at the temple of Poseidon near Mycale. Smyrna, originally an Aeolian colony, later joined the league. The fertility of the region and its excellent harbors brought prosperity to the cities. Traders and colonists traveled the Mediterranean as far west as Spain and up to the shores of the Black Sea. 波斯戰爭︰雅典成為民主新星 (愛奧尼亞的isononmia被歷史學家希羅多德淡忘) > In the 7th cent. BC the Ionian cities were invaded by the Cimmerians, but they survived. In the same century Gyges, king of Lydia, invaded, but it was not until the time of Croesus that their subjugation was completed. When Croesus was conquered (before 546 BC) by Cyrus the Great of Persia, the Greek cities came under Persian rule. That rule was not very exacting, but it was despotic in nature, and at the beginning of the 5th cent. BC the cities rose in [revolt against Darius I](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E5%A5%A5%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9A%E8%B5%B7%E4%B9%89). Although the revolt was easily put down, the Persians set out to punish the allies (Athens and Eretria) of the cities. The Persian Wars resulted. Most of the Ionian cities thereby gained a brief freedom, but their fate continued to be subject to treaties with the Persians and changed as Persian fortunes waxed and waned. Alexander the Great easily took (c.335 BC) all the Ionian cities in his power, and the Diadochi quarreled over them. The cities continued to be rich and important through the time of the Roman and Byzantine empires. It was only after the Turkish conquest in the 15th cent. AD that their culture was destroyed. Euripedes 《ion》(戲劇)表示雅典的始祖是愛奧尼亞人 修昔底德在《[伯羅奔尼撤戰爭史](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BC%AF%E7%BD%97%E5%A5%94%E5%B0%BC%E6%92%92%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89)》(Peloponnesian War)誤稱愛奧尼亞人是由雅典人移民而建立 (其實是因波斯戰爭後被雅典帝國統治才有的央觀 梭倫(Solon, 638-558) 是一個執政官,雅典政治家、議員、詩人、古希臘七賢 **Solons Reform** ( BC 594) 1.解放契約勞工 aka intendur 2. 赦免逾期債務 3.禁止用人作經濟工具&debt 4. Public Forum for everzone 5. Citizenship for foreigners 將債務一筆勾消!(學自愛奧尼亞) Athenian applying ionic Isonomia However: Failed & Frustration! Supplanted by tyrann Peisistratus: - Reason: Lack of social conditions which founded in Ionia, namely great gap between landowning nobility and common citizen... - To Realize (!) Equality = redistribution of land & Confiscation (demo-cracy) Democracy -- Isonomia (Difference?Contradictory?) Interpretation from G.F.G Hegel: *Vorlesung über die Philosophie der Weltgeschichte* (哲學史講義) - 2 fundamentally different tasks - Common Law = violence to indivudal (Process(!): 1.Exercise 2.Result from (1):insights from people-themselves 3. Constituition upheld by itself) - inavoidable state affairs (lawmakers) Kojin Interpretation: - social condition should not be overseen, although tyrann was evtl abandoned... - result is still democracy but not isonomia - Hegel another discern: political process of modernity: 1.monarchy/dictatorship 2. overturned by bourgeous revolution 3.Condition of realization of democracy = suffix -cracy, therefore: RULE & people-as-souvereign = concealed power of former power (cumulative dialectic of inside logic of history) EXKURS: G.F.G. Hegel: Vorlesung über die Philosophie der Religion (宗教哲學講義) **Lawmaker and Modern constituition law** **Lawmaker:** Solon, as lawmaker (Gesetzgeber) bring the ionic spirit (Geist) into *conscious* (compare: Moses) **Modern constituition Law**: all statutory instuitions are already GIVEN, what remains are insiginificant edits, redaktion and collateral clauses. # 4. 國家與民主主義 上回講到,民主其實係透過集中權力進行大多數人支配嘅政治型態。民主政治本質上係支配統治。Demos+kratos 本回概要:雅典民主興起嘅原因,氏族共同體變成國民共同體,演化出同愛奧尼亞社會截然不同嘅歷史進程。 **愛奧尼亞沒落,希臘城邦興起** 希臘城邦民主化,因爲戰爭同經濟。愛奧尼亞同希臘本土城邦有咩唔同? - 愛奧尼亞人重視工商業,輕視軍事 - 雅典、斯巴達爲「戰士-農民」共同體,崇尚軍事武力 - 好似AOE 愛奧尼亞全部漁船、商隊、村民,雅典斯巴達又有希臘火船又有裝甲步兵 **雅典城邦民主化嘅原因,同愛奧尼亞isonomia完全唔同:** 1. 經濟不平等 - 擁抱貨幣經濟 - 愛奧尼亞喺古希臘人之中最先鑄造貨幣,工商業令貨幣經濟蓬勃 - 貨幣傳入希臘本土城邦,但市民無從事工商業,淨係耕田,令好多市民負債,瓦解「戰士-農民」共同體 2. 戰爭模式改變 - 希臘城邦以重裝步兵Hoplites爲主幹,輕騎兵、弓箭手、投石手slingers只係做遊擊skirmish - 圓盾 hoplon - 長槍方陣phalanx - 步兵由公民組成,每人需要自費準備武器、裝甲、訓練、補給,參戰需要經濟基礎支撐 - 補充:好似古代日本,武士從俸祿裏面拎錢買裝,啲手下步兵(足輕)平時耕田,打仗受到領主徵召先自行買裝,直到戰國時代織田信長實行「兵農分隔」,士兵職業化,由大名統一分發補給武器 - 城邦好多公民負債,無錢課金買裝,「戰士-農民」共同體瓦解,帶來軍事危機,必須社會改革,當權貴族都支持 **斯巴達亦民主化:** 斯巴達係個點樣嘅地方? - 補充: - 法律規定男人淨係可以當兵,有希臘唯一full time軍隊,其他希臘人春秋二季要耕田,但斯巴達人全天候軍訓 - 斯巴達男女地位平等 **斯巴達點解民主化?** 1. 經濟平等 - 禁止貨幣經濟,唔俾斯巴達人從事商業交易 - 土地平均分配,人人有屋住,有田耕 - 但之所以能實行徹底平等嘅「民主」,因爲剝削外族 2. 軍國主義 - 斯巴達征服麥西尼亞人,逼佢哋做奴隸 - 麥西尼亞土地肥沃,農業發達 - 黑勞士(Heílôtes)要耕田,交租,隨時被主人擊殺 - 補充:The helots were allowed to marry, own small amounts of property and practice their own religious rights – all three things frequently denied to slaves in other cities. - Crypteia:軍事制度;「國定殺戮日The Purge」每年秋天,斯巴達公民可以隨意殺死一個黑勞士 - 有田有地有工人,物資充足,斯巴達人根本唔使自己做生意 - 同時,斯巴達要防範奴隸叛亂,要係噉富國強兵,強化戰士共同體,發展軍國主義 **雅典民主作爲維持國家嘅必要手段** - 無法廢除貨幣經濟,引致經濟不平等,階級矛盾 - 一面接受交易同貨幣經濟,一面尋求解決階級問題 - 唯一方法就係民主 **民主化動力來自軍事需求** - 以前打仗講英雄主義,貴族騎馬隻抽,平民步兵輔助 - 而家講叠馬,講羣毆,重裝步兵密集戰法,唔需要貴族 - 公民參戰促使民主化進程 - 例如波斯戰爭,希臘城邦用窮到無錢課金買裝嘅市民去撐船 - 打贏咗波斯帝國,呢啲市民嘅政治地位因此提高 **Demos** - 克里斯提尼 Cleisthenes 嘅改革:廢除氏族,建立Demos(區)作爲城邦內嘅政治單位 - 廢除古老部族,拆毀貴族權力嘅基礎 - 建立新嘅部族,發展帶有地緣性格嘅Demos - 比喻:好似廢除功能組別,十八區直選議會 - 一方面否定氏族社會嘅血緣觀念,一方面意味住,喺城邦裏面(交換模式B)回復氏族社會互酬原理(交換模式A) - 國家權力強制再分配(徵稅)> 民主制 (交換模式B) - Demos類似現代民族主義,Benedict Anderson「想像嘅共同體」 - 補充:現代民族國家->否定君主制->以人民爲主權者 - 咁點define「人民」?定義邊個係主權者? - 法國大革命,共和國憲法:法國人民係主權者 - exclude咗黑人奴隸、女人,但呢個係政治共同體再劃分、公民權資格擴張、政治權利不斷從君主、貴族下放嘅過程 - 海地革命,Toussaint Louverture **民主與國族主義** - 雅典民主具有國族主義特徵 - 民主與國族主義兩者無法分割 - 補充:Liah Greenfeld 民族主義歷史學者,「民族主義同民主兩者共生」民族主義劃定咗政治共同體嘅界限,提供咗凝聚力同共同歷史文化,幫助發展民主 - 雅典城邦,外國人無法擁有土地,無公民權,唔受法律保護,但要交好多稅 - 雅典市民名義上係農民,但實際上係叫啲奴隸去耕田,自己先至有時間去打仗同參與政治 - 無奴隸=自己搵食=無法履行公民義務 - 所以,擁有奴隸係成爲市民必要條件 > 第五章提要:雅典式直接民主,以及其內部政治自由和平等,建立於對外邦人、奴隸以及其他城邦嘅剝削之上。 **個人意見補充:** - 雅典城邦民主制有國族主義特徵,但同現代國族主義仍有根本分別 - 如果話雅典城邦係國族,係一種 anarchronism 時代錯置 - 國族作爲現代發明(Ernest Gellner),有一定現代性嘅條件,如資本主義、帝國主義、物質條件如印刷術 - 但可以歸納嘅係,雅典民主化同現代國族生成嘅共通點,就係政治共同體再劃分嘅過程,令政治權力更加平等化 **總結** - 愛奧尼亞嘅Isonomia之所以形成,係根據獨立自主嘅農業,同埋發達嘅工商業 - 雅典城邦嘅democracy完全因爲軍事理由,承接「戰士-農民共同體」而成 - 同時,雅典民主需要奴隸,市民睇唔起手工業,覺得係奴隸嘅工作 - 如果由社會背景去睇,呢個就喺愛奧尼亞同雅典嘅思想家最唔同嘅地方 # 5. 移民與Isonomia # 6. 冰島與北美洲 # 7. Isonomia與評議會 Philosophy arose in the crisis of isononmia -> [ward republic](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_republic) arose in the crisis of township [Standford 評議會](https://twitter.com/StanfordDaily/status/1387074067661000705?fbclid=IwAR013LoX7MVGbMvFo882w85yVbcL46hrQI4g1Tn2EApCZmh2W1JNYAPnIDg)通過議決恢復廣東話課程 [中大校友評議會](https://bit.ly/32M5Go1)改選 開明派奪2常委 楊于銘以7成半選票擊敗親建制當選主席 點解評議會係最民主既制度? Hannah Arendt "On Revolution" (241)肯定美國第三任總統,立國人之一[傑佛遜的政治理念](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeffersonian_democracy)︰ 主張︰ -把[County](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County#United_States) --> [Ward](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ward_(electoral_subdivision)#:~:text=A%20ward%20is%20a%20local,London%20Borough%20of%20Waltham%20Forest).) -While the Federalists advocated for a strong central government, Jeffersonians argued for strong state and local governments and a weak federal government. -小政府 -政教分離 -對憲法的持字面解釋 "strict constructionism" (有時稱[Originallism](https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-amy-coney-barrett-us-supreme-court-courts-antonin-scalia-038ec1d4de30d1bd97a0ce3823903f0c), 也是上屆Donald Trump 委任的大法官的法律觀點) (對於公共福利、墮胎、同性婚姻持保守觀點) > So the republic, according to [Jefferson](https://davidwang-12546.medium.com/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3-%E5%8D%81%E4%B8%83-%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3-%E5%8D%81%E4%B9%9D-%E5%82%91%E4%BD%9B%E9%81%9C-thomas-jefferson-ee1c386ff681), would not be secure in its very foundations without the ward system. Had Jefferson's plan of "Elementary republics" been carried out, it would have by far the feeble germs of a new form of government which we are able to detect in the sections of the Parisian Commune and the popular societies during the French Revolution... > Both Jefferson's plan and the French societes revolutionaires anticipated with an utmost weird precision those councils, soviets and [räte](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_republic_(system_of_government)),which were to make their appearance in every genuine revolution throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. 點解? 因為由人民即興自發 > Each time they appeared, they sprang up as the spontaneous organs of the people, not only outside of all revolutionary parties but entirely unexpected by them and their leaders. 1871年3月,法國巴黎公社原則︰「公社委員由群眾直接推選」、「公社委員是人民公僕,工資不得超過普通工人」「徹底打碎國家機器」「取消常備軍」 對比︰[上海公社](https://www.cuhk.edu.hk/ics/21c/media/articles/c155-201605001.pdf)的經驗︰ 1958年農村人民公社 (全國大饑荒) 1966年5月「五七指示」(《给林彪同志的一封信》)-封閉式經濟共同體 1966年8月群眾直接選舉幹部 (「中國共產黨中央委員會關於無產階級文化大革命的決定」「十六條︰各級文化革命委員會必須按照巴黎公社原則選舉產生」) 1967年1月毛澤東在《紅旗》登社論提倡巴黎公社原則 1967年1月10日毛澤東中共中央聯名給上海造反派組織發賀電 1967年2月2日中央文革小組決定成立「上海人民公社」 1967年2月12日毛澤東對張春嬌(中央文革小組調查員)講話︰「如果都叫公社,那麼黨怎麼辦呢?黨放在哪裡呢?總得要有個黨嘛,要有個核心嘛...」 1967年4月(天津選舉後)周恩來對天津幹部講話︰「不能用選舉的辦法」「要改變辦法、多協商,現階段選舉不十分適用」。 1968年8月毛澤東︰「十月革命並不是選舉成功的,而是用戰鬥打出來的」 1968年10月15日《紅旗》︰迷信選舉是形式主義,也是一種保守思想。「革命委員會就不是選舉產生的,而是直接依靠廣大革命群眾的行動產生的。」 1969年4月14日,中共九大通過新黨章,將各級選舉條款全部取消,改為「黨的各級領導機關由民主協商、選舉產生」。 ### 太Surprise, 叔叔不行鳥 > Even those historians whose sympathies were clearly on the side of revolution and who could not help writing the emergence of popular councils into the records of their story regarded them as nothing more than essentially temporary organs in the revolutionary struggle for liberation; that is to say, confronted them with an entirely new form of government, with a new public space for freedom which was constituted and organized during the course of revolution itself. 反思︰黃色經濟圈、手足互助組織、be water的力量,也會被視為過渡階段,而不是常態嗎? ### When isonomia was a living reality, the Ionians took it for granted Arendt: 美國獨立革命發生在 "povertyless society" (Township) 原因︰因自由而平等 (唔計對原住民既屠殺同大西洋奴隸買賣?) 在一個Town唔開心咪去另一個(即與冰島和愛奧尼亞類似) 有關美國立國初期的歷史,可參考 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GEynMoYrtOY 歷史的失憶︰ 愛奧尼亞人(希羅多德)唔記得Isonomia 美國人唔記得Township 我地唔記得文革(頭盔︰入面源自巴黎公社既選舉元素) 柄谷行人︰ 海德格同尼采對前蘇格拉底社會的理解(覺得係雅典既「戰士-農民」社群)係錯既,係對希臘的浪漫投射。 ---

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