# 心理學筆記
# 5 Learning
## 5.1 Classical Conditioning: Learning Signals and Associations
### 5.1.a Classical Conditioning
Pavlov實驗:
1. Unconditioned response(唾液)
2. Neutral Stimulus(聲音)
1. Conditioned Stimulus(聲音)
2. Conditioned Response(唾液)

> Classical conditioning
> ###### Phase 1: Before the conditioning has occurred
> UCS(肉粉)--->UCR(唾液)
> NS(聲音)--->Orienting response
> ###### Phase 2: The process of conditioning
> NS+UCS ---> UCR
> ###### Phase 3: After conditioning has occurred
> CS ---> CR
### 5.1.b Conditioned Responses over Time
1. Extinction: 反覆呈現CS而不提供UCS，致CR減弱消失。
2. Spontaneous recovery: 如果在CR消失一段時間後，CS再次出現，CR會再次恢復。
*消失時間越長，CS--->CR反應越強*
3. Renewal: 如果已消失的CR再次出現，就無需額外的配對。
### 5.1.c Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
1. Stimulus generalization: 剌激泛化，類似於特定CS的剌激，而引發同樣反應。
2. Stimulus discrimination: 剌激判別，避免過度泛化。
### 5.1.d The Signaling of Significant Events
**Factors of UCS and CS**
###### 1. Timing
1. Forward conditioning: Classical conditioning works the best when CS comes **before** the UCS.
2. Backward conditioning: When CS comes **after** the UCS.
|
| `Not enough for the CS merely to come before the UCS`
V
###### 2. Predictability
###### 3. Intensity:
Learn better.
Major/minor events.
###### 4. Attention:
A variety of stimuli might be present before a UCS occurs.
###### 5. Biopreparedness: biologically prepared
CS depending on whether the stimulus is a sight, a sound, or a taste and what kind of unconditioned stimulus follows it.
1. Conditioned taste aversion
2. Birds are strongly dependent on vision
3. Conditioned fear of harmless dogs or snakes than of potentially more dangerous objects, such as electrical outlets or knives
###### 6. High Order Conditioning
The boy's pain becomes associated with the doctor’s white coat.
> When a conditioned stimulus (the white coat) acts like an unconditioned stimulus, creating conditioned stimuli (the drugstore) out of events associated with it, the process is called higher order conditioning.
### 5.1.e Some Applications of Classical Conditioning
| Process | Description | Example |
| ----------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Acquisition | A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), which reliably triggers an unconditioned response (UCR). The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), which triggers a conditioned response (CR). | A young child learns to fear (conditioned response) a doctor’s office (conditioned stimulus) after crying (unconditioned response) in response to the pain (unconditioned stimulus) of an injection. |
| Stimulus generalization | A conditioned response is elicited not only by the conditioned stimulus but also by stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus. | A child fears most doctors’ offices and places that smell like them. |
| Stimulus discrimination | Some stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus do not elicit the conditioned response. | A child learns that his mother’s doctor’s office is not associated with needles. |
| Extinction | The conditioned stimulus is presented alone, without the unconditioned stimulus. Eventually the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the conditioned response. | A child visits the doctor’s office several times for a checkup but does not receive an injection. Fear may eventually cease. |

1. Phobias
- Classically conditioned fears
- Classically-conditioned-fear treatment: ***Joseph Wolpe's systematic desensitization***, such as relaxation with a feared stimulus.
> A person cannot be relaxed and afraid at the same time
2. Understanding Drug Tolerance
- Habituation: a reduction in responsiveness to a repeatedly presented stimulus, called *tolerance* when the stimuli is drug.
- ***Richard Solomon’s opponent-process theory***, habituation is the result of two processes that **balance** each other, like a seesaw.
## 5.2 Instrumental and Operant Conditioning: Learning the Consequences of Behavior
How do reward and punishment work?
### 5.2.a From the Puzzle Box to the Skinner Box
- **Thorndike’s instrumental conditioning and Puzzle Box**
- **Instrumental conditioning**: The cat’s learning is governed by the law of effect.
- **Law of effect**: If a response made to a particular stimulus is followed by a ***satisfying** effect* (such as food or some other reward)
↓
- **B. F. Skinner's operant conditioning** During instrumental conditioning, animals learn a response by *operating* on the environment.

> Instrumental conditioning is measured by **how long** it takes for a response (such as a bar press) to occur. Operant conditioning is measured by the rate at which responses occur

### 5.2.b Basic Components of Operant Conditioning
1. **Operant response(Oprant): 條件反射**, A response that has some effect on the world.
*E.g. When a dog stands whimpering by the front door and is then taken for a walk, it has made an operant response that influences when it will get to go outside.*
2. **Reinforcer: 增強物**, a stimulus that increases the probability that the operant behavior will occur again
- **Positive reinforcers:** Stimuli that strengthen the probability of the behavior that they follow.
*E.g.*`food, smiles, money, ...`
- **Negative reinforcers:** The removal of unpleasant stimuli.
*E.g.*`an 'escape,' pain reliever, ...`
*E.g. For example, if a student studies hard to avoid getting scolded by their parents, **the act of studying** is negatively reinforced because it leads to the removal of the aversive stimulus (the scolding).*
3. **Reinforcement: 增強**, A response being strengthened by ***adding/removal*** of a stimulus.
---

4. **Escape conditioning**: We learn responses that **stop** an unpleasant stimulus.
5. **Avoidance conditioning**: Responding to a signal in a way that **prevents** an aversive stimulus `scolding, anxiety, ...` from occurring
*E.g.
Stopping at red lights even when we are in a hurry
Apologizing for our mistakes even before they are discovered*
6. **Discriminative conditioned stimuli**: **區辨性制約刺激**, stimuli that signal whether reinforcement is available if a certain response is made.
*E.g. If you have been rewarded for telling jokes, you are not likely to do so during a funeral*
--->Leads to **'stimulus discrimination'** and being under **'stimulus control.'**
--->Adapting to **stimulus generalization**: *E.g. Suppose you enjoyed a wonderful meal at a restaurant called “Captain Jack’s,” which was decorated to look like the inside of an old sailing ship. You might later be attracted to other restaurants with nautical names or with interiors that look something like the one where you had that great meal.*
> =>**Complements:** *E.g. The birds learned to discriminate the works of the impressionist painter Claude Monet from those of the cubist painter Pablo Picasso and be able to generalize from the original artists to other artists who painted in the same style.*
### 5.3.c Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior
1. **Shaping**
The reinforcement of responses that come successively closer to some desired response.
*E.g. Animal trainers have used it to teach chimpanzees to roller-skate, dolphins to jump through hoops, and pigeons to play ping-pong*
2. **Primary reinforcers**
Events or stimuli whose rewarding power does not have to be learned.
`Food, water, ...`
3. **Secondary Reinforcement**
~=neutral stimuli when there are already paired reinforcement.
Rewards that people or animals learn to like.
*E.g. If you say **“Good girl!”(<--CS, conditioned reinforcers)** just before feeding Sugar, those words will become reinforcing after a few pairings.*

4. Operant conditioning is:
Stronger when reinforcers appear **soon** after a response occurs.
Faster when the reinforcer is **large**.
#### Reinforcement schedule
1. Partial schedule = intermittent schedule = reinforcement schedule
- `A. Response numbers per reinforcement`
- Fixed-ratio **(FR)** schedules:
Provide reinforcement following a **fixed** number of responses.
- Variable-ratio **(VR)** schedules:
Provide reinforcement following an **average** or flowing number of responses.
- `B. Time per reinforcement`
- Fixed-interval **(FI)** schedules:
Provide reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some **fixed time has passed** since the last reward.
- Variable-interval (VI) schedules:
Provide reinforcement for the first response that occurs after some **average** time has passed since the last reward.
> Figure 5.10 Results of Four Partial Reinforcement Schedules

| | **FR** | **VR** | **FI** | **VI** |
|:----------------------:|:------:|:------:|:------:|:------:|
| **Max. response rate** | **1** | 2 | 3 | 4 |
| **Avg. reponse rate** | **1** | **1** | 2 | 2 |

*Note: For 'fixed' and 'variable', it depends on how **predictable** is the reinforcement.*

5. **Cue-induced reinstatement**~=spontaneuose recovery
If a **discriminative stimulus** for reinforcement **reappears** after an operant response has been extinguished, that response may recur through cue-induced reinstatement.
6. **Partial/Continuous reinforcement (extinction) effect**
Partial: 因reward不固定，自己不知道已進入extinction狀態。
Continuous: 因reward固定，反應容易extinguish。
*E.g.
Why superstitious behavior is so resistant to extinction?
A: **Accidental reinforcement** can strengthen the behavior that appeared to “cause” good news*
### 5.2.d Why Reinforcers Work
- James Olds and Peter Milner discovered that mild electrical stimulation of certain areas of the brain’s **hypothalamus** can be a powerful reinforcer.
- Certain brain systems that use the neurotransmitter **dopamine** is associated with the pleasure of many stimuli.

### 5.2.e Punishment: By increasing discomfort or reducing pleasure
| **Reinforcement** | **Punishment** |
|:---:|:---:|
| Strengthen the behavior | Weaken the behavior |
| **Increase** the frequency of a response | **Reduce** the frequency of a response |

*E.g.*
- *If shock is **turned off** when a rat presses a lever, negative reinforcement occurs. It **increases the probability** that the rat will press the lever when shock occurs again.*
- *If shock is **turned on** when the rat presses the lever, punishment occurs. The rat will be **less likely** to press the lever again.*

###### Drawbacks:
1. Does not **“erase”** an undesirable behavior
2. **Associate** the punisher with the punishment--->Fear the punisher
3. Only punishment given **immediately** after the behavior is effective.
4. **Imitation** by children.
### 5.2.f Some Applications of Operant Conditioning
## 5.3 Cognitive Processes in Learning
### 5.3.a Learned Helplessness
*What happens when our actions have no effect on events, and especially when our escape or avoidance behaviors fail?*
### 5.3.b Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
#### Tolman’s rats
- **Latent learning**: Learning that is not demonstrated at the time it occurs.
- *E.g. After years of experience in your neighborhood, you could probably tell a visitor that the corner drugstore is closed on Sundays, even if you had never tried to go there on a Sunday **yourself**.*

- **Cognitive map**: A mental representation of the environment.
- **Place cells** in the rat **hippocampus** that fire only when particular locations in a maze are visited.
### 5.3.c Insight and Learning
- **Insight**: A sudden understanding of what is required to solve a problem.
### 5.3.d Observational Learning: Learning by Imitation
- **Observational learning**: Learning how to perform new behaviors by watching others.
## 5.4 Using Research on Learning to Help People Learn
*What should teachers learn about learning?*
### 5.4.a Active Learning
### 5.4.b Skill Learning
### 5.4.c Classrooms across Cultures

# 6 Memory
## 6.1 The Nature of Memory
### 6.1.a Basic Memory Processes
- Memory codes:
Translate information from the senses into mental representations of that information.

![image](
https://college.cengage.com/nextbook/shared/psychology/bernstein_9781337612395/images/12395_06_f01-t2.png)

### 6.1.b Types of Memory
- **Episodic memory**
Memory for events in one’s own past.
- **Procedural memory**
A type of memory containing information about **how to do things**.
- **Explicit memory**
Information retrieved through a **conscious effort** to remember something.
- **Implicit memory**
The unintentional and unconscious influence of **prior experiences** on current behavior, thinking, or emotion.
- **Priming**
Automatic, and it occurs without conscious effort.

|Episodic memory|Procedural memory|
|:-:|:-:|
|Implicit memory|Explicit memory|
|*how to do*|*remember info*|
### 6.1.c Models of Memory
- **Levels-of-processing model of memory**
A model that suggests that memory depends on the degree or **depth** to which we mentally process information.

| **Maintenance rehearsal** | **Elaborative rehearsal** |
|:-------------------------:|:--------:|
| **Repeating** information over and over | **Relating** new information |
- **Transfer-appropriate processing model of memory**
A model that suggests that memory depends on how well the processes used to retrieve information match up with the processes that were used to **encode** it.
*E.g. What do you think would happen to your performance on an exam if your instructor told you it would be in a multiple-choice format but then surprised you with an essay test? In a study about just such a situation, half the students in a class were told that their next exam would contain multiple-choice questions. The rest were told to expect essay questions. Only half the students actually got the type of exam they expected. These students did much better on the exam than those who took an unexpected type of exam. Apparently, in studying for the exam, each group used encoding strategies that were most appropriate to the type of exam they expected.*
- **Neural network models of memory**
Memory models in which new experiences are seen as **changing** one’s overall knowledge base.
- **Parallel distributed processing (PDP)**: a neural network approach
Memory sees each unit of knowledge as connected to every other unit.
- **Multiple memory systems model**
A model that suggests the existence of specialized and **separated** memory systems in the brain.
- **Information-*processing* model of memory**
A model that suggests that information must **pass through** sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory in order to become firmly **embedded**.
## 6.2 Storing New Memories
*What am I most likely to remember?*
### 6.2.a Sensory Memory
To **hold** information long enough for it to be processed further.
- **Sensory registers**
Memory systems that briefly hold incoming information.
- **Iconic memory**
The sensory register for visual information.
- **Selective attention**
**Focus** your mental resources on only some of the stimuli around you.
### 6.2.b Short-Term Memory and Working Memory
- **Short-term memory (STM)**
A stage of memory in which information normally **lasts less than twenty seconds**.
- **Working memory**
Memory that allows us to mentally work with, or manipulate, information being held in short-term memory.
*E.g. When you mentally calculate what time you have to leave home in order to have lunch on campus, return a library book, and still get to class on time, you are using working memory.*
- **Immediate memory span**
The largest number of items **you can recall** perfectly after one presentation.
- **Chunking**
**Organizing** individual stimuli so that they will be perceived as **larger units** of meaningful information.
#### The Power of Chunking
#### Duration of Short-Term Memory
*How long does information remain in short-term memory if you don’t keep rehearsing it?*
- **Brown-Peterson distractor technique**
A method for determining how long unrehearsed information remains in short-term memory.
### 6.2.c Long-Term Memory
More **elaborate** and **effortful** processing that usually involves **semantic encoding**.
- Source monitoring error
*After hearing a list of words such as cold, white, ice, winter, frosty, blizzard, frozen, drift, flurries, parka, shovel, skis, sled, and flakes, people often remember having heard the related word “snow” even though it was not presented.*
### 6.2.d Distinguishing between Short-Term and Long-Term Memory
| **Storage System** | **Function** | **Capacity** | **Duration** |
|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|
| **_Sensory memory_** | **Briefly** holds representations of stimuli from each sense for further processing | **Large**: absorbs all sensory input from a particular stimulus | Less than one second |
| **_Short-term and working memory_** | Hold information in **awareness** and manipulate it to accomplish mental work | Five to nine distinct items or chunks of information | About eighteen seconds |
| **_Long-term memory_** | Stores new information indefinitely | **Unlimited** | **Unlimited** |

*E.g. Encoding is usually acoustic in short-term memory and semantic in long-term memory.*

#### A Serial-Position Curve
**The first** few items and **the last** few items are most likely to be recalled.
## 6.3 Retrieving Memories
### 6.3.a Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity
- **Retrieval cues**
Stimuli that help you retrieve information from long-term memory.
- **Encoding specificity principle**
Better encoded, more effective.
### 6.3.b Context and State Dependence
- **Context-specific memory**
Memories that are helped or hindered by similarities or differences in environmental context.
*E.g. Police and prosecutors sometimes ask eyewitnesses to revisit the scene of a crime.*
- **State-dependent memory**
When our **internal** state influences retrieval, we have a state-dependent memory.
*E.g. If people learn new material while under the influence of marijuana, they tend to recall it better if they are tested under the influence of marijuana.*
### 6.3.c Retrieval from Semantic Memory
#### Semantic Networks
- **Spreading activation**
In semantic network theories of memory, a principle that explains how information is retrieved.
*E.g. You might know that there is an animal that has wings, can fly, and is not a bird and yet you might not be able to retrieve its name. When this happens, you are retrieving **incomplete knowledge**.*
- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: `dictionary definitions`
- Feeling-of-knowing experience: `recognization of the correct answer`*(I have seen it before...)*
## 6.4 Constructing Memories
- **Constructive memory**
We use that existing knowledge to organize the new information we encounter, and we fill in gaps in that information as we encode and retrieve it.
### 6.4.a Constructive Memory and Neural Network Models
Neural network models explains how semantic and episodic information become integrated in constructive memories.
- **Schema**
Mental representations of categories of objects, places, events, and people.
*E.g. Most North Americans have a schema for baseball game, so simply hearing these words is likely to activate entire clusters of information in long-term memory, including the rules of the game and images of players, bats, balls, a green field, summer days, and perhaps hot dogs and stadiums.*
## 6.5 Forgetting
### 6.5.a How Do We Forget?
**Hermann Ebbinghaus**, a German psychologist, began the systematic study of memory and forgetting in the late 1800s.
- **Relearning method**
A method for measuring forgetting.
- **Savings**
*E.g. This grandfather hasn’t fed an infant for decades, but his memory of how to do it is not entirely gone. He showed some **“savings”**; it took him less time to relearn the skill than it took him to learn it initially. In fact, previously forgotten information is sometimes recalled in exquisite, accurate detail, a phenomenon called hypermnesia.*
- **Ebbinghaus’s Curve of Forgetting**
*Choose 30 words at random from a dictionary, and spend a few minutes memorizing them. An hour later, write down as many words as you can remember...*
### 6.5.b Why do we forget?
- **STM: Decay theory**
- **LTM: Interference**
- **Retroactive inhibition**
A cause of forgetting whereby **new information placed in memory interferes** with the ability to recall information already in memory.
- **Proactive inhibition**
A cause of forgetting whereby previously **learned information interferes** with the ability to remember new information.
#### Procedures for studying interference
#### Retrieval Failures and Forgetting
Tulving and Psotka (1971) found that people’s ability to recall a list of items was strongly affected by **the number of other lists they learned** before being tested on the first one.
## 6.6 Biological Bases of Memory
### 6.6.a The Biochemistry of Memory
- **Spines**
Repeatedly sending signals across a particular synapse increases the number of special little branches, called spines, that appear on the **receiving cell’s dendrites**.
- **Long-term potentiation**
When two neurons fire at the same time and together stimulate a third neuron, that third neuron will later **be more responsive** than before to stimulation by either neuron alone.
- **Long-term depression**
**Weaken** synaptic connections.
#### Brain Structures Involved in Memory
### 6.6.b Brain Structures and Memory
#### The impact of brain damage
- **Anterograde amnesia**
A loss of memory for events that occur after a brain injury.
- **Retrograde amnesia**
A loss of memory for events that occurred prior to a brain injury.
#### Multiple Storage Areas
## 6.7 Improving Your Memory
### 6.7.a Mnemonic Strategies
***Methods for organizing information in order to remember it.***
### 6.7.b Guidelines for More Effective Studying
- **Distributed practice**
Learning new information in many study sessions that are spaced across time.
- **Massed practice**
Trying to learn complex new information in a single long study period.
#### Reading a textbook
- PQ4R method
| **Step** | Description |
|:---:|---|
| **Preview** | Skim the chapter to understand the organization, topics, and their relationships. |
| **Question** | Before reading a section, **ask yourself what content you expect** to find and what you need to learn. |
| **Read** | Actively read the text, focusing on answering the questions raised and identifying connections. |
| **Reflect** | **Create mental images and examples of concepts**, and consider how the section relates to the rest. |
| **Recite** | Summarize major points by reciting them aloud or explaining them to **a friend or study partner**. |
| **Review** | At the end of the chapter, review all material to understand the overall organization and context. |
# 9 Human Development
## 9.1 Exploring Human Development

| **Time Period/Thinker** | Perspective on Nature vs. Nurture | Key Points and Contributions |
|---:|:---:|---|
| **1690s - Johb Locke** | Nurture | - Locke believed that childhood experiences profoundly shape an individual's development. He saw children as blank slates (tabula rasa) upon which adults write their knowledge and values. |
| **1760s - Jean-Jacques Rousseau** | Nature | - Rousseau argued that children are capable of discovering the world and forming their behavior without significant guidance from adults. He advocated for a more natural and hands-off approach to child rearing. |
| **Early 1900s - Arnold Gesell** | Nature | - Gesell observed children's motor skill development and proposed that these developmental stages were largely determined by nature (biological programming) and relatively unaffected by nurture. He introduced the concept of maturation. |
| **Early 1900s - John B. Watson** | Nurture | - Watson, the founder of behaviorism, asserted that the environment plays a crucial role in shaping development. He conducted experiments to support the idea that children learn skills and behaviors through their experiences and upbringing. |
| **1920s-1980 - Jean Piaget** | Interaction between Nature and Nurture | - Piaget proposed that both nature (biological factors) and nurture (environmental influences) interact to shape cognitive development. He emphasized the importance of active learning and adaptation in child development, leading to his influential theory of cognitive development. |

### 9.1.a Understanding Genetic Influence
Guided by research in ***behavioral genetics***, the study of how genes affect behavior, they explore how genes and the environment influence specific aspects of development.
- Nature and nurture operate together to make all people similar in some ways.
- Nature and nurture operate together to make each person unique
### 9.1.b Genes and the Environment
Heredity(遺傳) creates **predispositions** that interact with environmental influences, including family and teachers, books and computers, and friends and random events, producing the developmental outcomes we see in individuals.
## 9.2 Beginnings
### 9.2.a Prenatal Development
| Stage/Concept (階段/概念) | Description (描述) |
|:---:|:---:|
| **Fertilization (受精)** | 發展過程始於精子受孕卵，形成新的細胞，稱為受精卵。 |
| **Chromosomes and Genes (染色體和基因)** | 大多數人類細胞擁有46條染色體，每條染色體都擁有數千個由DNA構成的基因。基因包含編碼信息，指導身體發育，包括眼睛顏色和遺傳疾病等特徵。 |
| **Mitosis (有絲分裂)** | 大多數身體細胞分裂的過程，創建具有相同46條染色體的新細胞。 |
| **Meiosis (減數分裂)** | 在形成精子和卵子細胞的過程中發生的細胞分裂，導致僅具有23條單一染色體的細胞。 |
| **Zygote (受精卵)** | 從精子和卵子融合形成的受精細胞，攜帶著23對染色體（一半來自每個父母）。 |
| **Teratogens (致畸因子)** | 有害物質，可能影響胎兒發育並導致先天缺陷，對胚胎期影響最大。 |
| **Prenatal Risks (產前風險)** | 諸如藥物濫用、暴露於有害物質、母親生病和壓力等各種因素可能對胎兒發育構成風險，可能對兒童的健康和發展造成長期影響。 |
| **Germinal Stage (受精卵期)** | 受精後的前兩週，受精卵分裂並形成胚胎。 |
| **Embryonic Stage (胚胎期)** | 跟隨胚胎期，其特點是快速發展，包括器官和身體部位的形成。 |
| **Fetal Stage (胎兒期)** | 胎兒發展的最後七個月，以器官、身體系統和感官功能的生長和功能為特徵。 |
### 9.2.b The Newborn
#### 視覺和其他感官 (Vision and Other Senses)
| 概念 (Concept) | 描述 (Description) |
|---|---|
| 新生兒視覺 (Newborn Vision) | 新生兒有模糊的視力，估計為20/300(*an object 20 feet away looks only as clear as it would if viewed from 300 feet by an adult with normal vision.*)。他們的有限視力是由於未發育完全的眼睛和大腦。他們可以看到近距離的大物體，尤其是人的臉。 |
| 新生兒聽覺 (Newborn Hearing) | 新生兒可以聽到柔和的聲音，並區分音樂音階上接近的音調。他們偏好某些類型的語音，並喜歡"寶寶語言"。他們還對某些氣味和味道有偏好。 |
#### 反射和運動技能 (Reflexes and Motor Skills)
| 概念 (Concept) | 描述 (Description) |
|---|---|
| 新生兒的反射 (Reflexes in Newborns) | 新生兒表現出各種反射，如抓握反射和搜尋反射。這些反射對於生存至關重要。缺乏或持續存在的反射可能表明發展問題。 |
| 運動技能發展 (Motor Skill Development) | 運動技能發展涉及從非自願反射到自願控制的過渡。嬰兒學會翻身、坐起、爬行、站立和行走。運動發展是由成熟和經驗的組合而來。 |
## 9.3 Infancy and Childhood: Cognitive Development
### 9.3.a Changes in the Brain
As different brain areas develop more complex and efficient neural networks, new cognitive abilities appear.
| 發展階段 (Development Stage) | 描述 (Description) |
|---|---|
| 出生後幾個月 (First Few Months) | 在嬰兒的生命初期，小腦（cerebellum）是大腦中最成熟的區域。它的早期成熟使嬰兒能夠展現簡單的聯想能力，例如在看到母親的臉或聽到她的聲音時更多地吸吮。 |
| 六至十二個月 (Six to Twelve Months) | 在六至十二個月的時候，前腦的中央顳葉（medial temporal lobe）的神經發展可能使嬰兒能夠記住和模仿動作，或識別物體。 |
| 兒童期後期 (Later Childhood) | 大腦的前額葉（frontal lobes）在兒童期後期才有神經發展，使得較高的認知功能，如推理，成為可能。 |

### 9.3.b The Development of Knowledge: Piaget’s Theory
- **Sensorimotor Development**
> Infants can only form schemas of objects and actions that are **present—things** they can see, hear, or touch. They cannot think about absent objects, he said, because they cannot act on them.

- **Assimilation**
The process of taking in new information about objects by using existing schemas on objects that fit those schemas.
*E.g. Children take in information about new objects by trying out existing schemas and finding schemas that new objects will fit.*
- **Accommodation**
The process of modifying schemas when they do not work on new objects.
- **Object permanence**
The knowledge that an object exists even when it is not in view.

- **Preoperational Development**
> During *the first half* of the period, children between the ages of **two and four** begin to understand, create, and use **symbols** that represent things that aren’t present. They draw, pretend, and talk.

> During *the second half* of the preoperational period, **four- to seven**-year-olds begin to make intuitive **guesses** about the world as they try to figure out how things work.
- **Conservation**
The ability to recognize that **important properties** of a substance or a person remain the same **despite changes in shape** or appearance.
*Children’s thinking at this period is so dominated by what they can see and touch for themselves that they do not realize something is the same if its appearance is changed. In one study, preoperational children thought that a cat wearing a dog mask was actually a dog because that’s what it looked like (DeVries, 1969).* These children do not yet have what Piaget called conservation.
- *E.g.*
- *“Clouds go slowly because they have no legs”; “Flowers grow because they want to”; and “Empty cars feel lonely.”*
- *Being **egocentric***
- **Concrete operational development**
>Can learn to count, measure, add, and subtract. Their thinking is no longer dominated by the appearance of things. They can use simple **logic** and perform simple mental **manipulations** and mental **operations** on things.

- **Formal operational period**
> Engage in hypothetical thinking, including the imagining of logical consequences.
- *E.g. Finding a part-time job and recognize that some methods are more likely to succeed than others.*
### 9.3.c Modifying Piaget’s Theory
#### New Views of Infants’ Cognitive Development
#### New Views of Developmental Periods
In summary, psychologists today tend to think of cognitive development **in terms of rising and falling “waves**,” not fixed periods (Siegler, 2016). It appears that children systematically try out many different solutions to problems and gradually come to select the best of them.

### 9.3.d Information Processing during Childhood
| **Age** | **Achievement** | **Description** |
|---|---|---|
| 3–4 months | **Maturation of senses Voluntary movement** | Immaturities that limit the newborn’s vision and hearing are overcome. Reflexes disappear, and infants begin to gain voluntary control over their movements. |
| 12–18 months | **Mental representation Object permanence** | Infants can form images of objects and actions in their minds. Infants understand that objects exist even when out of sight. |
| 18–24 months | **Symbolic thought** | Young children use symbols to represent things that are not present in their pretend play, drawing, and talk. |
| 4 years | **Intuitive thought** | Children reason about events, real and imagined, by guessing rather than by engaging in logical analysis. |
| 6–7 years | **Concrete operations; Conservation** | Children can apply simple logical operations to real objects. |
| 7–8 years | **Information processing** | Children can remember more information; they begin to learn strategies for memorization. |
### 9.3.e Culture and Cognitive Development
Russian psychologist **Lev Vygotsky**
The child’s mind grows by **contact** with other minds, such as parents, teachers, and other representatives of their culture
### 9.3.f Individual Variations in Cognitive Development
## 9.4 Infancy and Childhood: Social and Emotional Development
### 9.4.a Individual Temperament
- **Temperant**
The infant’s individual style and frequency of expressing needs and emotions.
- **Thomas & Chess's** temperament patterns
- **Easy babies**
Get hungry and sleepy at **predictable** times, react to new situations cheerfully.
- **Difficult babies**
**Irregular** and irritable.
- **Slow-to-warm-up babies**
**React warily** to new situations but eventually enjoy them.
- **Mary Rothbart**'s three dimensions
- **Surgency/Extraversion**
Positive, active, and seeking stimulation
- **Effortful control**
Focus attention, avoid distraction
- **Negative affectivity**
Fearful, angry, frustrated, etc.
### 9.4.b The Infant Grows Attached
- **John Bowlby**'s Attachment theory
The idea that children form a close attachment to **their earliest caregivers** and that this attachment pattern can affect aspects of the children’s later lives.
#### **Harlow**'s Motherless Monkeys—and Children
*E.g. Like Harlow’s deprived monkeys, children raised in orphanages staffed by neglectful caregivers tend not to develop attachments to those caregivers; they become withdrawn and constantly rocking*
#### Forming an Attachment
#### Variations in Attachment
An infant whose parent has been absent or unresponsive may need more closeness than one whose parent is accessible and responsive.
- **Attachment behavior**
Actions such as crying, smiling, vocalizing, and gesturing that help bring an infant into closer proximity to its caretaker.
- **Strange Situation**
1. The infant plays with the mother and the stranger
2. The mother leaves the baby with the stranger for a few minutes
3. The mother and the stranger leave the baby alone in the room briefly
4. The mother returns.
- **Insecure attachments**
- **Avoidant relationship**
**Avoid** or ignore the mother when she approaches or returns
- **Ambivalent relationship**
Upset when the mother leaves, but acts **angry** when she returns
- **Disorganized**
**Inconsistent**, disturbed, and disturbing
### 9.4.c Consequences of Attachment Patterns
### 9.4.d Relationships with Parents and Peers
**Erik Erikson** (1968) described **the first year of life** as a time when infants develop a feeling of trust (or mistrust) about the world.
- Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development

| **Stage** | **Key Developmental Challenge** | **Outcome** |
|---|---|---|
| Infancy (0-1 year) | Trust vs. Mistrust | Developing trust or mistrust in caregivers and the world. |
| Early Childhood (2-3 years) | Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt | Establishing independence and confidence in making choices. |
| Preschool Age (4-5 years) | Initiative vs. Guilt | Learning to initiate tasks and activities, or feeling guilt over attempts at independence. |
| School Age (6-11 years) | Industry vs. Inferiority | Developing a sense of competence and curiosity, or experiencing feelings of inadequacy. |
| Adolescence (12-18 years) | Identity vs. Role Confusion | Forming a clear sense of self-identity or feeling confused about one's identity. |
| Young Adulthood (19-40 years) | Intimacy vs. Isolation | Establishing close relationships and intimacy or experiencing social isolation. |
| Middle Adulthood (40-65 years) | Generativity vs. Stagnation | Finding meaning and fulfillment through contributing to society or feeling stagnation. |
| Late Adulthood (65+ years) | Integrity vs. Despair | Reflecting on life with a sense of fulfillment and acceptance or experiencing despair. |

- **Socialization**
The process by which **parents, teachers**, and others teach children the skills and social norms necessary to be well-functioning members of society.
- **Parenting styles**
The varying patterns of behavior—ranging from **permissive to authoritarian**—that parents display as they interact with and discipline their children.
- Permissive parents
- Authoritative parents
- **Uninvolved parents**
Parents who invest as **little time, money, and effort** in their children as possible.
### 9.4.e Peer Friendships and Popularity
### 9.4.f Social Skills
- **Self-regulation**
The ability to control one’s emotions and behavior.
*E.g Children learn to calm or console themselves by sucking their thumbs or cuddling their favorite blanket.*
### 9.4.g Gender Roles(sex roles)
| Age | Relationships with Parents | Relationships with Other Children | Social Understanding |
|---|---|---|---|
| Birth–2 years | Infants form an **attachment** to the primary caregiver. | Play focuses on toys, not on other children. | Infants **respond** to emotional expressions of others. |
| 2–4 years | Children become more **independent** and no longer need their parents’ constant attention. | Toys are a way of eliciting responses from other children. | Young children can **recognize** emotions of others. |
| 4–10 years | Parents actively **socialize** their children. | Children begin to cooperate, compete, play games, and form friendships with peers. | Children learn **social rules** (such as politeness) and **roles** (such as being a male or female). |
## 9.5 Adolescence
### 9.5.a Changes in Body, Brain, and Thinking
- Puberty
The condition of being able, for the first time, to reproduce.
### 9.5.b Identity and Development of the Self
- **Ethnic identity**
The part of a person’s identity that reflects the racial, religious, or cultural group to which that person belongs.
- **Identity crisis**
The phase during which an adolescent attempts to develop an integrated self-image as a unique person by pulling together self-knowledge acquired during childhood.
### 9.5.c Moral Development
- **Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Reasoning**
- “Heinz dilemma,” in which people decide whether a man named Heinz should steal a rare and unaffordable drug to save his wife’s life.
| Stage | What Is Right? | Should Heinz Steal the Drug? |
|---|---|---|
| Preconventional | 1. Obeying and avoiding punishment from an authority | "Heinz should not steal the drug because he will be jailed." |
| | 2. Making a fair exchange, a good deal | "Heinz should steal the drug because his wife will repay him later." |
| Conventional | 3. Pleasing others and getting their approval | "Heinz should steal the drug because he loves his wife and because she and the rest of the family will approve." |
| | 4. Doing your duty, following rules and social order | "Heinz should steal the drug for his wife because he has a duty to care for her," or "Heinz should not steal the drug because stealing is illegal." |
| Postconventional | 5. Respecting rules and laws but recognizing that they may have limits | "Heinz should steal the drug because life is more important than property." |
| | 6. Following universal ethical principles such as justice, reciprocity, equality, and respect for human life and rights | "Heinz should steal the drug because of the principle of preserving and respecting life." |

## 9.6 Adulthood
### 9.6.a Physical Changes
- Menopause
The cessation of a woman’s reproductive capacity.
### 9.6.b Cognitive Changes
### 9.6.c
# 12 Psychological Disorders
## 12.1 Defining Psychological Disorders
### 12.1.a What Is Abnormal?
**“three D’s”:** deviance, distress, and dysfunction.
- **Deviance**
The criterion for abnormality becomes **statistical infrequency**.
- **Distress**
Personal suffering
- **Dysfunction**
- Impaired functioning
- Having difficulty in fulfilling appropriate and expected roles in family, social, and work-related situations
### 12.1.b Behavior in Context: A Practical Approach
Considering the content of behavior (i.e., what the person does), the sociocultural context in which the person’s behavior occurs, and the consequences.
## 12.2 Explaining Psychological Disorders
### 12.2.a The Biopsychosocial Approach
- **Biological Factors**
- Medical model(neurobiological model) and mental illness
- **Psychological Processes**
- Psychological model(Sigmund Freud)
A view in which mental disorder is seen as arising from psychological processes.
- Psychodynamic approach
- **Sociocultural Context**
### 12.2.b The Diathesis-Stress Model as an Integrative Explanation
- Diathesis-stress model
The diathesis-stress model’s explanations suggest that psychological disorders can result from many combinations of predisposition and stress.

| **Explanatory Domain** | **Possible Contributing Factors** |
|---|---|
| **Neurobiological/medical** | José may have a genetic tendency toward anxiety, an endocrine dysfunction, a neurotransmitter imbalance, a brain tumor, or some other biological disorder. |
| **Psychological: psychodynamic** | José has unconscious conflicts and desires. Instinctual impulses are breaking through ego defenses into consciousness, causing panic. |
| **Psychological: social-cognitive** | José interprets physical stress symptoms as signs of serious illness or impending death. His panic is rewarded by stress reduction when he stays home from work. |
| **Psychological: humanistic** | José fails to recognize his genuine feelings about work and his place in life, and he fears expressing himself. |
| **Sociocultural** | A culturally based belief that “a man should not show weakness” amplifies the intensity of stress reactions and delays José’s decision to seek help. |
| **Diathesis-stress summary** | José has a biological (possibly genetic) predisposition to be overly responsive to stressors. The stress of work and extra activity exceeds his capacity to cope and triggers panic as a stress response. |

## 12.3 Classifying Psychological Disorders
### 12.3.a A Classification System: The DSM-5
### 12.3.b Evaluating the Diagnostic System
- **Interrater reliability**
The degree to which different mental health professionals agree on what diagnostic label a particular person should have.
## 12.4 Anxiety Disorders
### 12.4.a Types of Anxiety Disorders
#### Phobia
- **Social anxiety disorder (social phobia)**
Strong, irrational fears related to social situations.
- **Agoraphobia**
A strong fear of being in crowds or away from the safety of home or familiar people.
#### Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- A condition that involves long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any particular object or situation.
#### Panic Disorder
- Anxiety in the form of sudden, severe panic attacks that appear **without obvious cause**.
## 12.5 Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
- **Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)**
A disorder in which a person becomes obsessed with certain thoughts or feels a compulsion to do certain things.
- **Obsessions(固執)**
Persistent, upsetting, and unwanted thoughts that interfere with daily life and may lead to compulsions.
- **Compulsions(慾望)**
Repetitive behaviors that interfere with daily functioning but are performed in an effort to prevent dangers or events associated with obsessions.
- **Body dysmorphic disorder(軀體變形障礙)**
An obsessive-compulsive disorder characterized by intense distress over **imagined abnormalities** of the skin, hair, face, or other areas of the body.
### 12.5.a Causes of Anxiety and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders
- Biological Factors: genes
- Psychological and Environmental Factors
## 12.6 Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
Psychological problems in which a person shows the symptoms of a physical disorder for which there is **no physical cause**.
- **Illness anxiety disorder**
A strong, unjustified **fear** of physical illness.
- **Conversion disorder**
A somatic symptom disorder in which a person appears to be (but actually is not) **blind, deaf, paralyzed, or insensitive to pain**.
## 12.7 Dissociative Disorders
Conditions involving sudden and usually **temporary disruptions** in a person’s memory, consciousness, or identity.
- **Dissociative amnesia (解離性失憶症)**
A psychological disorder marked by a sudden **loss** of memory for one’s own name, occupation, or other identifying information.
- **Dissociative identity disorder (DID) (解離性身分障礙症)**
A dissociative disorder in which a person appears to have more than one identity, each of which behaves in a different way.
## 12.8 Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
### 12.8.a Depressive Disorders
- **Major depressive disorder**
A condition in which a person feels sad and hopeless for weeks or months, often **losing interest** in all activities and taking pleasure in nothing.
- **Delusion: False beliefs**
In extreme cases, depressed people may express false beliefs, or delusions, worrying.
- **Persistent depressive disorder**
A pattern of depression in which the person shows the sad mood, lack of interest, and loss of pleasure associated with major depressive disorder but to **a lesser degree** and for **a longer period**.
### 12.8.b Bipolar Disorders
Conditions in which a person **alternates** between the two emotional extremes of depression and mania.
- Cyclothymic disorder
A bipolar disorder characterized by an alternating pattern of mood swings that is less extreme than that of bipolar I or II disorder.
### 12.8.c Causes of Depressive and Bipolar Disorders
## 12.9 Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic Disorders
- **Schizophrenia(精神分裂症)**
A pattern of severely disturbed thinking, emotion, perception, and behavior that constitutes one of the most serious and disabling of all mental disorders.
### 12.9.a Symptoms of Schizophrenia
- **Neologisms**
New words
- **Loose associations**
Logically unconnected
- **Delusions of persecution**
被害妄想症
- **Hallucinations(幻覺)**
False or distorted perceptions of objects or events.
### 12.9.b The Schizophrenia Spectrum
- **Positive symptoms of schizophrenia**
Undesirable **additions** to a person’s mental life
*E.g. Disorganized thoughts, delusions, and hallucinations*
- **Negative symptoms**
**Subtract** elements from normal mental life
*E.g. The absence of pleasure and motivation, lack of emotion, social withdrawal, reduced speech*
### 12.9.c Causes of Schizophrenia
## 12.10 Personality Disorders
Long-standing, inflexible ways of behaving that become styles of life that create problems for the person affected and/or others.
- Antisocial personality disorder
A long-term, persistent pattern of impulsive, selfish, unscrupulous, and even criminal behavior.
## 12.11 Some Additional Psychological Disorders
### 12.11.a Neurodevelopmental Disorders
### 12.11.b Substance-Related and Addictive Disorders
- Substance-related disorders
Problems involving the use of psychoactive **drugs** for months or years in ways that harm the user or others.
## 12.12 Psychological Disorders and the Law