Microcontrollers (MCUs) are compact, self-contained computers on a chip that are designed to sense, process, and control electronics in embedded systems. They are the "brains" behind everything from microwave ovens and watches to robots and IoT devices.
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How Microcontrollers Work — Step by Step
1. Basic Components of a Microcontroller
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2. Workflow Inside an MCU
1. Power On
When powered, the microcontroller starts executing code from a reset vector, typically at address 0x00000000.
2. Load Program from Flash
The CPU fetches and executes instructions stored in Flash memory.
3. Execute Instructions
- Instructions can include reading sensors, turning on LEDs, or sending data.
- The CPU handles math, logic, branching, and memory operations.
4. Interface with Peripherals
- Built-in UART/SPI/I2C ports allow communication.
- Timers help manage delays or generate signals like PWM.
- ADC modules convert analog sensor signals to digital.
- Interrupts allow real-time reactions to events (e.g., button press).
5. Loop Continuously
Most embedded programs run inside an infinite loop:
3. Typical Application Example: Temperature-Controlled Fan
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4. Programming a Microcontroller
- Write code in C/C++ or assembly
- Compile into machine code
- Upload to MCU via programmer/debugger (e.g., ST-Link, USB)
- MCU executes this firmware repeatedly on power-up
5. Low Power and Sleep Modes
- Microcontrollers often support sleep modes to conserve energy.
- They can wake up on timers or interrupts—ideal for battery-powered systems.
Summary
A microcontroller reads inputs (like sensors), processes that data using its CPU, and controls outputs (like motors, displays, LEDs)—all while running a small program stored in memory.