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進入理化(序)

簡報 https://www.canva.com/design/DAFpSDPuIOs/-vkD3EcbzLkKq99TFfS5JA/view?utm_content=DAFpSDPuIOs&utm_campaign=designshare&utm_medium=link&utm_source=publishsharelink
器材 https://sites.google.com/a/ntjh.ntct.edu.tw/phys-chem/001ke-wen-nei-rong-yao-dian/01guo-er-shang/001-1-0jin-ru-shi-yan-shi
NOTION版 https://reminiscent-hardhat-a9c.notion.site/e008bc719dbf49aab5fe5990bed34123?pvs=4

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氪(Kr)的原子序為36

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討論範疇

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理化討論的範疇包含物質與能量，物質的變化有物理反應與化學反應。

生物體組成

人體與器官系統

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組成結構由小到大（完整、有意義）

細胞散在空中__細胞變成了一些組織__組織變成器官__器官變成器官系統__系統變成人體
氫原子跟氧原子散在空中__氫跟氧變成一些水分子__很多水分子散在空中__水分子聚集成一杯水__水分子聚集成冰河

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物質的意義

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物質的組成是由原子組成分子，分子形成物質，物質中只含有一種分子的物質稱為純物質，而含有多種分子的物質稱為混合物。
常見的分子有:氧氣分子(O2)、臭氧分子(O3)、二氧化碳分子(CO2)、水分子(H2O)

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物質的反應

1.物理反應➜分子不變，不產生新物質

2.化學反應➜分子重組，產生出新物質

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物質的反應分為物理反應和化學反應，差別在於分子的變化:
物理反應時，分子不變，不會產生新的分子，例如水蒸發變成水氣
化學反應時，分子重組，產生新的分子，例如氫氣爆炸的反應

實驗室與測量

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安全:注意事項

※ 嗅聞藥品時，需以搧聞方式(人在上風處)

※ 稀釋酸液時，將酸倒入水中(酸密度較大)

※ 碰觸酸鹼時，以大量水清洗

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器材:用途與正確使用

※ 量筒➜ 用來測量體積(排水法)

※ 試管➜ 可混和或加熱少量液體

※ 燒杯、燒瓶、蒸發皿➜ 可加熱液體(以陶瓷纖維網均勻加熱)

※ 酒精燈➜ 可做熱源加熱(裝入酒精適量)，熄滅時以燈罩蓋熄

※ 玻棒➜ 使液體流入容器避免濺出

※ 滴管➜ 吸取試劑，不可倒持

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實驗方法:控制變因法

意義:相同情況下，不同的因素，造成不同的結果

相同情況(控制變因)、不同因素(操作變因)、不同結果(應變變因)

參考影片https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OxgT6jIuVFg

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測量

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質量的測量使用的是天平
使用前要用校準螺絲平衡左右兩盤，向輕的地方校準，使左右平衡
使用時左盤放置物品，右盤放置砝碼(用騎碼微調右盤重:一格0.1g)
天平的平衡要看指針，上皿天平指針向上，等臂天平指針向下

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體積的測量使用量筒，測量物體體積時，將物體投入裝有水的量筒中，物體沉入水的體積=水排開的體積，如果會浮在水上的或是會被溶解的物體另外討論。(測量乒乓球或是測量方糖體積)

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測量完質量和體積後，兩者相除即可計算密度，密度=質量除以體積。
密度表示物質的緊密程度，物質密度越低，物質越鬆散，像是空氣密度低，飄散在空中；物質密度越高，物質就越緊密，像是鐵塊密度大，物質緊密且穩固。所以密度小的東西越鬆散，分子比較容易往上浮，例如密度小於水的乒乓球，則會浮在水上；密度大於水的鐵塊，則會沉入水中，而水的密度為每1立方公分1公克，4oC的水密度最大，冰塊會浮在水上。

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範例

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質量=體積x密度，有數學式可知
當體積固定時，密度和質量成正比
當密度固定時，體積和質量成正比
當質量固定時，體積和密度成反比

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這是密度的應用計算，原則有
1.質量=體積乘以密度，有兩個單位即可推測第三個單位
2.金屬沉入液體，物體沉入的體積=排開液體的體積
3.從量筒逐漸倒入液體時，從質量從量筒本身的質量逐漸變重，從函數圖的斜率可以算出，每增加1立方公分的液體，總質量增重幾公克，即液體密度。

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補充

測量值=數字部分(準確值；估計值)+單位部分(SI制)

➜準確值紀錄到最小單位/刻度

➜估計值記錄到最小單位下一位

➜單純記數不是測量 EX:人數

➜求平均值時，誤差太大不計

國際單位制:SI

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理化討論的範疇包含物質與能量，物質的變化有物理反應與化學反應。
生物體的組成包括細胞、組織、器官系統，組成結構由小到大（完整）。
物質的組成是由原子組成分子，分子形成物質，可分為純物質和混合物。
物質的反應分為物理反應和化學反應，物理反應不產生新物質，化學反應則產生新物質。
在理化實驗室中，需注意安全事項和正確使用器材。
測量質量使用天平，測量體積使用量筒，密度可由質量除以體積計算得出。
密度表示物質的緊密程度，密度小的物質鬆散，密度大的物質緊密。
密度的應用計算包括質量、體積和密度的關係，金屬沉入液體的體積以及從量筒倒入液體時的質量變化。

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物質與廣義溶液

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物質三態:性質、變化與影響因素

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物質有三態，像是水分子有冰(固態)、水(液態)、水氣(氣態)，三態是分子是分子的狀態，冰塊加熱到OoC，冰塊會逐漸轉換為水，當水加熱到1000C，水會逐漸化為水氣，此時分子的動能大，形狀不固定，分子和分子距離遠(鬆散)，具有可壓縮姓。所以分子在固態的時候最為穩固、分子緊固，在氣態時，分子最為鬆散、自由度高。

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物質分類:純物質/混合物

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物質由原子結合成分子，無數分子聚集成物質，物質中含有無數分子
若物質含有的無數分子中，只有一種分子組成，就是純物質(元素分子/化合物分子)
若物質含有的無數分子中，由很多種分子組成，就是混合物(均勻混合/不均勻混合)

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物質反應:物理/化學

物質的變化分成物理反應與化學反應，區別在於分子的改變
物理反應時，分子種類不變，沒有產生新的分子
化學反應時，分子重組種類改變，產生新的分子
需要經過物質化學反應才能觀察的物質性質為化學性質；不需要經過物質化學反應就能觀察到的物質性質為物理性質

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物質分離:混合物分離

➜過濾法:依顆粒大小差異分離

➜溶解法:依溶解度差異分離

➜蒸發法:依沸點差異分離

➜展開法:依附著力差異分離 (色層分析)

物質由無數分子組成，混合物中含有多種分子，要將混合物的成分分離
必須針對分子的特性進行分離:
過濾法是用顆粒大小(能不能通過過濾紙的縫隙)把成分分離；
溶解法是用對水的溶解度(丟到水中會不會溶解)把成分分離；
蒸發法是用沸點(容不容易變成氣體)把成分分離

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溶液:廣義溶液、濃度、溶解度

均勻混合物=廣義溶液=溶質+溶劑(水或含量多者)

溶液的狀態

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水溶液(溶解度與溫度為正相關時):

➜未飽和狀態降溫/蒸發➜飽和

➜飽和狀態升溫or加溶質➜未飽和

濃度公式:溶質量=溶液量x濃度

溶解度=100g水最大溶解量=飽和溶液的比例

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例外:食鹽、氫氧化鈉等等

廣義的溶液就是均勻的混合物，所以合金、水溶液、空氣都算廣義溶液
水溶液中含有水(溶劑)和溶質，水溶液中被溶解的溶質比例為濃度；而特定溫度(狀態)下水可溶解的最大溶質比例為溶解度。
一般來說，水溶解固態的溶質，溫度越高時，水越能溶解溶質，所以對固體的溶解度越大；而水溶解氣態的溶質，溫度越高，水越難溶解溶質，所以對氣體的溶解度越小。
水溶液中的水含溶質的比例達到溶解度的比例時，溶液就不能再溶解更多的溶質，達到飽和狀態，在當下溫度達到最高濃度。

氣體:性質、反應和用途

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惰性氣體:

氦(比重輕)、氖(通電➜紅光)、氬(空氣含量第三)、氪、氙、氡

空氣中含有多種氣體分子:有氮氣分子、氧氣分子、二氧化碳分子、惰性氣體的三種常見分子(氦氣分子、氖氣分子、氬氣分子)，每種分子有不同的物理性質與化學性質。

空氣品質指標(AQI):

空氣品質指標依據資料將當日空氣中臭氧 (O3)、細懸浮微粒 (PM2.5)、懸浮微粒 (PM10)、一氧化碳 (CO)、二氧化硫 (SO2) 及二氧化氮 (NO2) 濃度等數值，以其對人體健康的影響程度，換算出不同污染物之副指標值，再以當日各副指標之最大值為該測站當日之空氣品質指標值 (AQI)。

參考影片https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HHNzcEOD5ic
學習講義p.28、66(學習地圖)

物質的三態是指固態、液態和氣態。這些態分別代表了物質分子的不同排列和運動方式。例如，水可以存在為冰（固態）、液態水和水蒸氣（氣態）。當冰受熱到攝氏0度時，它會逐漸融化成液態水；當液態水受熱到攝氏100度時，它會逐漸轉變為水蒸氣。在氣態中，分子的動能最高，形狀不固定，分子之間的距離較遠，因此具有可壓縮性。相比之下，在固態中，分子排列最緊密，而在液態中，分子則相對鬆散，但仍保持著一定的接近程度。

物質可以分為純物質和混合物兩類。純物質是指僅由一種分子組成的物質，可以是單一元素的分子或化合物的分子。而混合物則是由多種分子組成的物質，可以是均勻混合或不均勻混合。

物質的變化可以分為物理反應和化學反應。物理反應不改變分子的種類，沒有生成新的分子；而化學反應導致分子的重組和種類改變，產生新的分子。觀察到的物質性質需要通過化學反應才能出現的稱為化學性質，而不需要化學反應就能觀察到的稱為物理性質。

將混合物的成分分離需要根據分子的特性進行分離。常用的分離方法包括過濾法（根據顆粒大小進行分離）、溶解法（根據溶解度進行分離）、蒸發法（根據沸點進行分離）和展開法（根據附著力進行分離，如色層分析）。

溶液是一種廣義的均勻混合物，也稱為廣義溶液。它由溶質和溶劑組成，其中溶劑通常是水或含量較多的物質。溶液的狀態可以根據溶質的溶解度和溫度來描述。對於水溶液，當溶解度與溫度呈正相關(溫度越高溶解度越高)時，可以用以下方式達到狀態轉變：未飽和狀態降溫/蒸發後變為飽和狀態，飽和狀態升溫或加入更多溶質後變為未飽和狀態。溶液的濃度可以用溶質的被溶解量除以溶液的量來表示。

溶解度是指在特定溫度下，溶劑能夠溶解的最大溶質量。對於水溶液而言，最大溶解量通常用100克水能夠溶解的溶質量來表示。

然而，有一些特殊情況，如食鹽和氫氧化鈉等，它們的溶解度並不隨溫度的增加而增加。

空氣中包含多種氣體分子，其中包括氮氣、氧氣、二氧化碳以及惰性氣體（如氦、氖和氬）。每種氣體分子都具有不同的物理性質和化學性質以及氣體反應

波與聲

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波的本質

波形


高低波(橫波)的振動

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疏密波(縱波)的振動

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電磁波的振動

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水波的振動

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都卜勒效應

1.波源不動:
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2.波源移動:
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介質每震動一次，波會行走一個波長

參考影片:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D-iQnY7OC0s&t=269s

週期波

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波的性質


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影響波的因素:
介質的狀態或種類➜影響波速
振源的種類或狀態➜影響頻率、週期、波長、振幅
漫反射➜能量發散(不集中)

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聲波

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回聲為聲波的反射，需隔0.1秒人耳才可分辨

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補充

1.地震波

地震發生時，在震源引起的能量以彈性波從震源向四面八方傳播，依照傳播路徑分為兩大類：

•經過地球內部傳播的稱為體波，包含P波與S波。

•地震來到地球表面形成的波稱為表面波，有洛夫波與雷利波。

2.光波

光為電磁波，由互相震盪的磁場與電場組成，具有能量，在真空中傳遞時，波速為3x108m/s

波與光

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光波


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聚光鏡/散光鏡

1.聚光鏡:凹面鏡/凸透鏡

特性:

➜平行光聚集於焦點(可逆行) 穿越鏡心時不偏折

➜於焦點內成像為正立虛像

➜於焦點外成像為倒立實像

➜離焦點越近成像越大

➜於兩倍焦距成像時物體與成像等大

2.散光鏡:凸面鏡/凹透鏡

特性:

➜像為正立縮小虛像

➜離鏡面越近像越大

➜平行光沿虛線聚集於焦點

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基本圖示

針孔成像

光的反射


光的折射

❉紅光偏折小，光速快

平面鏡成像

照相機

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物體於兩倍焦距外

眼睛

複式顯微鏡

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物體位於物鏡一倍焦距至兩倍焦距間，最終成像為倒立放大虛像

光的三原色

溫度與熱

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溫度與熱-測量

溫度測量:溫度計

例題1

image

例題2

image

熱變化測量: △H=MxSx△T

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水的比熱約為:1cal/gxoC

範例1:比熱的定義(1g物質上升1oC需要的能量)

範例2:熱量變化的計算

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相同熱源，提供熱量相同，溫度變化不同

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表現

物理變化

三態變化

體積變化

化學變化

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性質

平衡(傳熱)

過程: 高溫➜低溫，熱平衡

方式:

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傳導:固體為介質 (最快)

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對流:流動液體或氣體為介質 (中)

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輻射:不須介質 (慢)

➜保溫瓶的真空夾層可減少熱傳導、對流；鍍銀可減少熱輻射(光滑表面)

➜鋁箔紙的粗糙面朝外吸收熱輻射較快。

電磁波

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參考圖示

電磁波譜

物質的基本結構

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物質的組成

原子的組成: 原子核(質子+中子)+電子

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物質的世界

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原子模型

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原子的種類:元素週期表

元素的判讀

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質子數決定化學性質➜相同質子數為同元素

週期表即由質子數排列元素

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中子數決定物理性質➜相同質子數，不同中子數為同位素

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電子數決定電荷及化性➜失去電子為正離子，得到電子為負離子

同族(直排)的元素化學性質相似

原子的分類

金屬元素VS.非金屬元素

  • 延展性=延性(拉不破)+展性(打不爆)

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金屬元素(以原子堆積形式存在)

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❈鎂:應用於閃光燈(燃燒發出白光) ❈汞:應用於溫度計、燈管(汞蒸氣)

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非金屬元素(通常以分子形式存在) ❉除了碳

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分子的組成:由原子(鍵結)組成的個體

分子的重組:化學反應

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物質的成份


:BULB:純物質→性質固定(定值) :BULB:混合物→性質不固定(一個範圍)

❈化合物可經由化學變化分解出其他物質

A.照光分解:氧化汞(紅)→氧氣+汞 B.電解:水→氫氣+氧氣

C.加熱分解:碳酸鈉→碳酸氫鈉+水+二氧化碳

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物質的符號

化學式

1.分子式:表示分子的原子組成 (for一般分子物質)

2.實驗式:表示原子組成的最簡比例 (for晶體結構物)

3.結構式:表示出鍵結情形 (for有機化合物)

4.示性式:表示官能基 (for有機化合物)

常見的離子及根離子:

無機化合物：正離子在前，負離子/氧在後

有機化合物：按C、H、O的次序(+官能基)

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補充

1.週期表

2.解離反應: 化合物→負離子+正離子

EX:H2O→H++OH-

EX:NaOH→Na++OH-

3.酸的腐蝕:金屬(活性大於氫)+酸類→產生氫氣

參考影片1 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f0GcL7vMLJE
參考影片2 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huoA8LvHXmI
原子說: 2H+O→2H1/2O
分子說: 2H2+O2→2H2O

補充

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