The Philosophical Foundations of the Legendarium: Neoplatonism vs. Manichaeism

Tolkien’s The Silmarillion presents a rich and complex mythological universe that has drawn comparisons to various philosophical and religious traditions. Among these, Neoplatonism and Manichaeism are frequently cited, particularly due to the cosmic conflict between light and darkness, creation myths, and the metaphysical underpinnings of good and evil. However, a deeper examination reveals that The Silmarillion aligns much more closely with Neoplatonic philosophy than with Manichaeism.

This article will clarify why the comparison to Neoplatonism is more accurate and meaningful than that of Manichaeism, drawing on core elements of each philosophy and how they resonate with Tolkien’s vision of Arda.

Neoplatonism: A Structured Universe

Neoplatonism, which builds on the ideas of Plato, posits a hierarchical cosmology that begins with The One—the ultimate, unknowable source of all existence. From The One emanates a series of levels of reality, including the realm of Nous (the intellect or ideal forms) and Psyche (the soul), before descending into the material world. This descending hierarchy suggests that everything in the material world is a diminished reflection of the perfection found in higher levels of reality.

In The Silmarillion, we see a similar structure. The supreme being, Eru Ilúvatar, is the creator of all things, analogous to The One in Neoplatonism. Through the Ainulindalë (the Music of the Ainur), Ilúvatar creates the Ainur, who are akin to the Neoplatonic Nous—they are divine beings that shape and order the world according to Ilúvatar’s vision. The physical world, Arda, is the manifestation of their work, but it is an imperfect reflection of the divine music due to the discord introduced by Melkor.

Emanation and Sub-Creation

In Neoplatonism, the material world emanates from the higher realms but is always less perfect, being further removed from The One. Similarly, in Tolkien’s world, creation flows from Ilúvatar through the Ainur, with each level of creation being a lesser reflection of the divine plan. Tolkien’s concept of sub-creation—where beings like Aulë and even mortal races participate in shaping the world—mirrors the Neoplatonic idea of the lower levels of reality attempting to imitate or manifest the perfect forms that exist in higher realms.

This hierarchical structure contrasts with the dualistic cosmology of Manichaeism, where the universe is a battleground between two equal and opposing forces: Light (good) and Darkness (evil). In Manichaeism, the material world is seen as inherently flawed and trapped in this struggle. However, Tolkien’s cosmology does not position good and evil as equal forces. Instead, evil (in the form of Melkor/Morgoth) is a corruption or perversion of the good. Evil does not have an independent existence but rather distorts the created world.

The Nature of Evil

Neoplatonism views evil not as a force in its own right but as a deficiency or corruption of the good. This is consistent with Tolkien’s portrayal of Melkor’s rebellion. Melkor is one of the Ainur, originally created good, who becomes obsessed with power and control, seeking to impose his own will on Arda. His evil stems from his desire to dominate and twist the original design of the world, much as Neoplatonic philosophy views evil as a deviation from the true and the good.

By contrast, Manichaeism posits a dualistic view of evil, where it is an equal and eternal force in opposition to the good. This is not the case in The Silmarillion, where Morgoth’s power is always subordinate to Ilúvatar. Morgoth cannot create life; he can only corrupt what has already been created. This distinction is crucial in understanding why Tolkien’s mythology cannot be neatly compared to Manichaeism.

Aspiration Toward the Divine

In both Neoplatonism and Tolkien’s work, there is a strong theme of aspiration toward the divine. In Neoplatonism, the soul seeks to return to the higher realms, moving away from the material world and ascending toward the perfection of The One. Similarly, many of the characters in The Silmarillion, particularly the Elves, long for a return to Valinor, the undying lands that are a closer reflection of the divine order. This longing to reconnect with a higher, more perfect existence is a hallmark of Neoplatonic thought, and it is a central theme in Tolkien’s mythos as well.

In contrast, Manichaeism focuses on the liberation of light from the material world, but this liberation is framed as an escape from a fundamentally flawed and evil physical reality. There is no hierarchical ascent or reflection of divine forms in Manichaeism, making it a less suitable framework for interpreting Tolkien’s legendarium.

Conclusion: Neoplatonism as the Fairer Comparison

While the comparison to Manichaeism may arise from the obvious themes of light and darkness in The Silmarillion, it is a superficial one. Manichaean dualism posits two opposing and independent forces, whereas Tolkien’s mythos is structured around a monotheistic and hierarchical worldview, much more in line with Neoplatonic thought. The presence of a single creator, the notion of sub-creation, and the treatment of evil as a corruption of good all reflect core Neoplatonic ideas. In contrast, the Manichaean worldview of equal and eternal opposition between good and evil is fundamentally incompatible with the philosophical depth of Tolkien’s world.

Thus, for those seeking to understand the philosophical underpinnings of The Silmarillion, Neoplatonism provides a far richer and more accurate lens than Manichaeism.

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References:

Neoplatonism—

1. Plotinus, The Enneads
   • The primary source for Neoplatonic philosophy, written by Plotinus, who is regarded as the founder of Neoplatonism. The Enneads are structured into six groups of nine treatises, exploring the nature of reality, the One, and the relationship between the material and divine.
   • A good edition: Plotinus: The Enneads, translated by Stephen MacKenna, Penguin Classics, 1991.
2. Lloyd P. Gerson, Plotinus (Arguments of the Philosophers)
   • A modern introduction to Plotinus' thought, focusing on his key concepts and influence on later philosophy.
   • Cambridge University Press, 1994.
3. A.H. Armstrong, An Introduction to Ancient Philosophy
   • This book provides a solid introduction to ancient Greek philosophy, including a concise and accessible explanation of Neoplatonism and its relation to earlier thinkers like Plato and Aristotle.
   • Macmillan, 1947.
4. Dillon, John, The Middle Platonists: 80 B.C. to A.D. 220
   • Covers the development of Platonic thought in the centuries leading up to Neoplatonism, offering context for the emergence of Plotinus’ philosophy.
   • Cornell University Press, 1996.
5. Pierre Hadot, Plotinus or The Simplicity of Vision
   • A short and accessible introduction to Plotinus' ideas, emphasizing his view of philosophy as a way of life and focusing on the practical aspects of Neoplatonism.
   • University of Chicago Press, 1998.

Manichaeism—

1. Iain Gardner and Samuel N.C. Lieu, Manichaean Texts from the Roman Empire
   • A comprehensive collection of Manichaean texts, providing insight into the beliefs and practices of the religion, along with historical context.
   • Cambridge University Press, 2004.
2. Michel Tardieu, Manichaeism
   • A thorough historical and doctrinal introduction to Manichaeism, discussing its origins, key teachings, and spread throughout the ancient world.
   • University of Illinois Press, 2008.
3. Jason BeDuhn, The Manichaean Body: In Discipline and Ritual
   • An in-depth exploration of the Manichaean religion's focus on dualism, the body, and its ritual practices.
   • Johns Hopkins University Press, 2000.
4. Mani, The Kephalaia of the Teacher
   • One of the most important primary sources for Manichaean doctrine, the Kephalaia is a collection of sayings and teachings attributed to Mani, the founder of Manichaeism.
   • Available in various editions, including a translation by E.S. Drower, 1948.
5. Nicholas J. Baker-Brian, Manichaeism: An Ancient Faith Rediscovered
   • A concise introduction to Manichaeism, examining its origins, beliefs, and lasting influence in the ancient world.
   • Bloomsbury Academic, 2011.