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    # Dynamic Games of Incomplete Information ###### tags: `Management Science Modeling` `Dynamic Game` Signaling game 概論 --- 老天爺會決定一個Signal Sender (Sender)的特質,這時候有一個相對應的Signal Receiver(Receiver)來應對這個Sender給的Signal並依Signal做出不同的決策。我們稱這種賽局叫做Signaling Game。是屬於Dynamic Games 的其中一種。 這種Signaling Game分成三種均衡: 1. **Pooling Equilibrium** 即大家都傳送出一樣的訊息,根本無從鑑別。 2. **Separating Equilibrium** 不同種類的人會傳送出不同種類的訊息,該訊息具備鑑別度。 3. **Partially Separating/Pooling Equilibrium** 就介於上面兩者的一半,可以透露出某種程度上的訊息。 舉例一 --- 在美國西部小鎮上有個酒吧,裡面有個很愛欺負人的惡霸B,這個惡霸有機會欺負剛進來酒吧的任何人A。但是這個A可以是跟惡霸一樣猛的惡霸,或者是一個好欺負的菜雞,且剛進來這個酒吧的人是惡霸的比例是0.9,菜雞的比例是0.1。A可以點啤酒或鹹派,如果他吃到他自己想吃到的東西的話,他會得到一點的報酬(**給定大家的印象是惡霸喜歡啤酒,菜雞喜歡鹹派**)。但是如果B沒有來找他麻煩的話,他可以額外獲得兩點的報酬。B如果找他麻煩,A只是少得到兩點報酬,不會扣分。同理,如果A沒有吃到他自己想吃的東西的話,他就只是沒有得到那一點而已。那B就很簡單,只要他挑釁到跟他一樣猛的人,它就摸摸鼻子認了沒報酬; 但是如果他剛好遇到比他弱的菜雞,它就得到一分的報酬。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/QlUok8T.jpg) **前提** 大家認為惡霸喝啤酒,菜雞吃鹹派 ![](https://i.imgur.com/iFshP6I.jpg) **判斷** 我如果是惡霸,我走下面那條。我就不愛吃鹹派,所以根本對我來說沒有報酬,我自然不會走那邊。我本來就愛喝啤酒,所以我自然而然會走喝啤酒那條。 反過來如果我是菜雞,我選喝啤酒那條對我來說報酬也比較高,所以我會選喝啤酒。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/0innioi.jpg) **結論** 這個就形成了pooling equilibrium,代表這個訊息一點都沒屁用。因為菜雞也喝啤酒,惡霸也喝啤酒,根本沒辦法分析出什麼資訊。 **舉例一變形** --- 那如果今天我給題目換個小細節: 「**菜雞超級討厭喝酒,所以如果他喝啤酒的話報酬是-1.5**」(大家先假裝看不到那個粗線條><) ![](https://i.imgur.com/14BOszE.jpg) **前提** 大家認為惡霸喝啤酒,菜雞吃鹹派 **判斷** 我如果是惡霸,我走下面那條。我就不愛吃鹹派,所以根本對我來說沒有報酬,我自然不會走那邊。我本來就愛喝啤酒,所以我自然而然會走喝啤酒那條。 但是今天我是菜雞,如果我喝啤酒會不開心,導致我就算喝啤酒來假裝我是猛哥,我的報酬還不會比過我吃鹹派卻被人挑釁來得高。所以我寧願忠於我自己的喜好唄。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/AgS0tL4.jpg) **結論** 這個就是Separating Equilibrium。資訊有鑑別度,菜雞的確會吃派,惡霸真的會喝酒。總而言之,其實真正決定這個賽局的因素在於報酬的分配跟這個賽局的結構。 **舉例二** --- 教育真的是有用的Signaling工具嗎?這個賽局的結構比較極端,但是大家可以參考看看。 對於各種高中生而言,如果你是屬於比較笨的那種(無惡意)那你可能就要花比較多的成本在上大學上。好比說你如果要避免被當掉就要花比較多時間唸書,或者考大學之前要付出比較多補習費才能達到聰明人的效果云云。反之,如果你是電神,你可能付出一點成本就可以得到很好的學習效果。為此,我們設定上大學的成本對於呆瓜來說是3,對於聰明人來說是1。但是就像霸社裡面的某些呆瓜講的「唸到台大這麼屌到最後還不是跟我們領一樣的薪水」,為了證明他們沒說錯,所以我們設定出來工作的大家薪水都是2。另一方面,雇用人如果可以請到優秀的人,對他們來說的效益是3,請到呆瓜的話是0。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/iJ8bFD3.jpg) **前提** 沒有人想要請一個呆瓜,大家都想要請厲害的人為自己工作。問題來了,為了避免循環論證,我們勢必是要找到新的邏輯來證明我們現在的邏輯是正確的。為此,我們先假想這世界如果沒有大學會怎樣,也就是說,把這個賽局的一部分變成靜態賽局看看到底會發生什麼事。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/0VidLEx.jpg) 在這張圖裡面,我們很明顯地看到給定有沒有大學這個篩選器無效了。也就是說,**世界上剩下呆瓜或聰明人兩個選項。** 我們可以算出來雇主們如果要雇用一個人,就是碰運氣。在這個賽局的結構下,他們如果選擇雇用的話就只能一視同仁的全部雇用(*別忘了我們是沒有考慮別的因素進來的,你都沒有篩選器了你如果還可以一個一個挑出你的員工,你真的是通靈了。*)**你現在看到如果一間公司選擇雇用,那他的期望值是負的,不如都不要雇用至少不會虧。** *假定大學如果不是一個具備Signaling力量的工具的話,雇主們就乾脆都不要請人算了* 我們的前提就出來了「**沒念大學的就不要請了**」 **判斷** 給定我們的前提,大家都知道企業們會找有念大學的。可是在給定呆瓜要花比較多成本念大學的情況下,呆瓜們會屈服於現實而選擇不去念大學。因為企業們知道這件事了,所以就形成了這樣的賽局結構:「聰明人會繼續念大學,呆瓜不會繼續念大學」 ![](https://i.imgur.com/WccjP9y.jpg) **結論** 我們的目的是要看看到底教育是否在給定架構之下真的具備Signaling Power,我們得到的答案是正確的。但是這裡的假設很強: 1. 我們假定大學並沒有教會大學生們任何價值。 2. 我們假定這社會沒有別的影響大學生們就讀大學的其他因素。 至少我們可以得到在大學教育具備成本,且報酬並不顯著的時候教育體制的確有一些Signaling Power存在。當然,這一切都還是很看賽局本身的結構來決定的,望周知。

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