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    ## 2. 基礎結構: 集合、函數、序列、總和、與矩陣 ### 2.1 集合 #### Definition - 集合 集合是一個不需按照順序排列,且集合內部所有元素均不相等的物件。 $a \in A$, $a$ 是集合 $A$ 的元素之一。 $a \not \in A$, $a$ 不是集合 $A$ 的元素之一。 ##### Example $\{a, b\} = \{b, a\}$ $\text{{a, a, b}} = \text{{a, b}}$ $(a, b) \neq (b, a)$ <br> <br> --- #### Introduce - 窮舉法 如果窮舉出集合內的所有物件是可能的,我們可以窮舉出集合內的所有物件。 ##### Example 1 所有母音的集合。 $V = \{a, e, i, o, u\}$ <br> ##### Example 2 所有小於100的正整數的集合。 $O = \text{{1, 2, 3, ... 99, 100}}$ <br><br> --- #### Introduce - 集合建構式符號 $\text{{x | x has property P}}$,念作「所有符合條件$P$元素$x$的集合」。 <br> ##### Example 1 所有小於10的正整數奇數集合。 $O = \{1, 3, 5, 7, 9...\}$ $O = \text{{x | x is an odd positive integers less than 10}}$ x 是小於 10 的奇數正整數 $O = \{{2x+1\ |\ 0 \le x \le 4}\}$ <br> ##### Example 2 所有正的有理數,且為整數的集合$\mathbb{Q}^+$。 $\mathbb{Q}^+ = \{{x\in\mathbb{R}\ |\ x = \dfrac{a}{b}\text{ for some positive integers p and q.}}\}$ <br> ##### Example 3 所有自然數的整數集合。 $\mathbb{N} = \{0, 1, 2, 3, ...\}$ <br> ##### Example 4 所有整數的集合。 $\mathbb{Z} = \{..., -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, ...\}$ <br> ##### Example 5 所有正整數的集合。 $\mathbb{Z}^+ = \{0, 1, 2, ...\}$ <br> ##### Example 6 所有有理數的集合。 $\mathbb{Q} = \{\dfrac{p}{q}\ |\ p \in \mathbb{Z}, q \in \mathbb{Z}, q \neq 0\}$ --- #### Definition - 集合相等 若兩個集合的所有元素相等,則我們說這兩個集合相等。 $A = B \iff (x \in A \rightarrow x \in B)$ ##### Example $\{1, 3, 5\} = \{3, 5, 1\}$ $\{1, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5\} = \{1, 3, 5\}$ #### Definition - 空集合 空集合沒有任何元素,寫作 $\varnothing$。 #### Definition - 單元素集合 單元素集合只有一個元素。 ##### Example $\{\varnothing\}$ 是一個單元素集合。 --- #### Introduce - 文氏圖 我們可以用文氏圖來表示一個集合。 ##### Example ![image-20210315095124977](https://i.imgur.com/uouK3oM.png) $U = \text{{a, b, c, d, e, f, g ...}}$ $V = \text{{a, e, i, o, u}}$ --- #### Definition - 子集合 若且唯若集合$A$的每個元素都為集合$B$的元素,則我們說$A$是$B$的子集合,且$B$為$A$的父集合。 可以表示成$(A \subseteq B \land B \supseteq A) \iff \forall x(x \in A \rightarrow x \in B)$ #### Theorem - 1 對於每一個集合 $S$, $\varnothing \subseteq S$, $S \subseteq S$ $\{\} \subseteq \{\}$ $\{\} \subseteq \{a\}$ $\{a\} \subseteq \{a\}$ $\{\} \subseteq \{a, b\}$ $\{a\} \subseteq \{a, b\}$ $\{b\} \subseteq \{a, b\}$ $\{a, b\} \subseteq \{a, b\}$ 如果一個集合有$n$個元素,則他會有$n!$種不同的子集合。 --- #### Introduce - 真子集 若$A$是$B$的真子集,則對於所有在集合$A$的$x$也都在集合$B$,且$B$存在一個元素不在集合$A$。 可以寫作,$A \subset B \iff \forall x(x \in A \rightarrow x \in B) \land \exists x(x \in B \land x \not \in A)$。 --- #### Definition - 有限集合與無限集合 如果一個集合有剛好$n$個元素,且$n$存在,則我們說這個集合是有限的,否則這個集合是無限的。 --- #### Definition - 集合的勢 若有一個集合$A$,我們定義「集合的勢」為==集合內部的元素數量==,寫作$|A|$。 ##### Example 1 $|\varnothing| = 0$ <br> ##### Example 2 令集合$S$為擁有所有字母的集合,則$|S| = 26$ <br> ##### Example 3 $|\{1, 2, 3\}| = 3$ <br> ##### Example 4 $|\{\varnothing\}|= 1$ <br> ##### Example 5 若$S$為所有整數的集合,則$|S|$為無限。 --- #### Introduce - 冪集 若存在一個集合 ==有集合$A$的所有子集==,我們寫作$\wp(A)$。 如果集合$A$有$N$個元素,則$|\wp(A)| = 2^N$。 ##### Example 若$A=\{a, b\}$,則$\wp(A) = \{\{\varnothing\}, \{a\}, \{b\}, \{a, b\}\}$ --- #### Introduce - 多元組 - 一個有序且長度為$n$的多元組包含了元素$(a_1, a_2, a_3, ... a_n)$,且$a_1$是第一個元素,$a_n$是最後一個元素。 - 兩個長度為$n$的多元組$A, B$,我們先用$A_i$表示多元組$A$的第$i$個元素。 若兩個多元組的每一項都相同,也就是$A_1 = B_1, A_2 = B_2, ... ,A_n = B_n$,則兩個多元組就是相同的。 - 長度為$2$的多元組我們稱作有序對。 - 若有兩個有序對$(a, b)$與$(c, d)$,則若$a = c$且$b = d$,則兩個有序對才相同。 ##### Example 若有兩個長度為$n$的多元組$A, B$。 $A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)$,$B = (5, 4, 3, 2, 1)$,則$A \neq B$ $A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)$,$B = (1, 2 ,3, 4)$,則$A \neq B$ $A = (1, 2, 3, 4, 5)$,$B = (1, 2 ,3, 4, 5)$,則$A = B$ --- #### Introduce - 笛卡兒積 兩個==集合$A, B$相乘==,我們稱作==笛卡爾積==,寫作$A \times B$。 $A \times B$是一個集合,包含了所有不同的有序對$(a, b)$,其中$a \in A$,$b \in B$ 我們可以寫成這樣:$A \times B = \{(a, b) | a \in A \land b \in B\}$ <br> ##### Example 若集合$A = \{a, b\}$,集合$B = \{1, 2\}$ 則$A \times B = \{(a, 1), (a, 2), (b, 1), (b, 2)\}$ --- #### Introduce - 笛卡兒積的子集合 在笛卡爾積的子集合$R$,我們可以說與集合$A$和集合$B$都有關係。 --- #### Introduce - 多個集合的笛卡兒積 若我們有$m$個集合$A_1, A_2, A_3, ..., A_M$,則笛卡爾積寫作$A_1 \times A_2 \times ...\times A_M$。 則$A_1 \times A_2 \times ...\times A_M = (a_1, a_2, ... ,a_n)$,為一個有序多元組的集合,其中$a_i \in A_i, i = 1, 2, ..., n$。 ##### Example 若$A = \{0, 1\}$,$B = \{1, 2\}$,$C = \{0, 1, 2\}$,求$A \times B \times C$ $A × B × C = \{(0,1,0), (0,1,1), (0,1,2),(0,2,0), (0,2,1), (0,2,2),(1,1,0), (1,1,1), (1,1,2), (1,2,0), (1,2,1), (1,2,2)\}$ --- ==#### Introduce - 量詞的真值集== 給定一個量詞$P$與定義域$D$,我們定義量詞$P$的真值集為所有使得$P$為true且在定義域$D$的元素。 我們可以把真值集寫作$\{x \in D | P(x)\}$。 ##### Example 給定定義域$D$為所有整數與$P(x)$為$|x| = 1$,找出$P(x)$的真值集。 則$P(x)$的真值集為$\{-1, 1\}$。 --- ### 2.2 集合運算子 #### Introduce - 聯集 $A$與$B$為集合,若$A$與$B$取聯集,則我們可以表示成$A \cup B = \{x | x \in A \lor x \in B\}$。 ![image-20210318201511613](https://i.imgur.com/4E0HEfG.png) ##### Example 若$A = \{1, 2, 3\}$,且$B = \{3, 4, 5\}$,則$A \cup B = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}$ --- #### Introduce - 交集 $A$與$B$為集合,若$A$與$B$取交集,則我們可以表示成$A \cap B = \{x | x \in A \land x \in B\}$ ![image-20210318201634099](https://i.imgur.com/8kYIVY9.png) 如果$A \cap B = \varnothing$,則$A$與$B$的關係為互斥的。 <br> ##### Example 1 若$A = \{1, 2, 3\}$,且$B = \{3, 4, 5\}$,則$A \cap B = \{3\}$ <br> ##### Example 2 若$A = \{1, 2, 3\}$,且$B = \{4, 5, 6\}$,則$A \cap B = \varnothing$ --- #### Introduce - 補集 令$A$是一個集合,則$A$的補集(通常叫做宇集$U$),==寫作$\overline{A}$==,為$U - \overline{A}$的集合。 定義為$\overline{A} = \{x \in U | x \not \in A\}$ $A$的補集有時表示成$A^c$。 ##### Example 如果宇集$U$代表小於$100$的正整數,則求$\{x | x > 70\}$的補集。 $\{x | x \le 70\}$ ![截圖 2024-04-13 晚上7.35.06](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/ByulRkdg0.png) --- #### #### Introduce - 差集 令$A$與$B$為一個集合。 $A$與$B$的差集,可以表示成$A - B$,代表==集合$A$不包含集合$B$的東西==。 可以被定義為$A - B = \{x | x \in A \land x \not \in B\} = A \cap \overline{B}$ ##### Example 令$A = \{1, 2, 3\}$,$B = \{3, 4, 5\}$,求$A - B$ $A - B = \{1, 2\}$ --- #### Introduce - 兩個集合交集的勢 利用排容原理。 $|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B|$ ##### Example 令$A = \{1, 2, 3\}$,$B = \{3, 4, 5\}$,求$|A \cup B|$ $|A \cup B| = |A| + |B| - |A \cap B| = |3| + |3| - |5| = 1$ --- #### Introduce - 對稱差 若有兩個集合$A$與$B$,則$A$與$B$的對稱差寫作$A \oplus B$。 定義為$A \oplus B = (A-B) \cup (B-A)$ ##### Example 若$U = \{0, 1 ,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9\}$,$A = \{1, 2, 3, 4, 5\}$,$B = \{3, 4, 5, 6, 7\}$,求$A \oplus B$ $A \oplus B = (A - B) \cup (B - A) = \{1, 2\} \cup \{6, 7\} = \{1, 2, 6, 7\}$ --- #### Introduce - 集合特徵 - 恆等律 - $A \cup \varnothing = A$,$A \cap U = A$ - 支配律 - $A \cup U = U$,$A \cap \varnothing = \varnothing$ - 冪等律 - $A \cup A = A$,$A \cap A = A$ - 補餘律 - $\overline{(\overline{A})} = A$ - 交換律 - $A \cup B = B \cup A$,$A \cap B = B \cap A$ - 連鎖律 - $A \cup (B \cup C) = (A \cup B) \cup C$ - $A \cap (B \cap C) = (A \cap B) \cap C$ - 分配律 - $A \cap (B \cup C) = (A \cap B) \cup (A \cap C)$ - $A \cup (B \cap C) = (A \cup B) \cap (A \cup C)$ - 德摩根定律 - $\overline{A \cup B} = \overline{A} \cap \overline{B}$,$\overline{A \cap B} = \overline{A} \cup \overline{B}$ - 吸收律 - $A \cap (A \cup B) = A$,$A \cap (A \cup B) = A$ - ==Complement laws補充法律== - $A \cup \overline{A} = U$,$A \cap \overline{A} = \varnothing$ --- ### 2.3 函數 #### Definition - 函數 令$A$與$B$為一個非空集合,一個函數從$A$映射$B$,寫作$A \rightarrow B$。 代表==每一個集合$A$的元素都剛好指向一個集合$B$的元素==,寫作$f(a) = b$。 其中$b$為集合$B$的相異元素,被集合$A$的元素所映射。 --- ==#### Introduce - 笛卡耳積的函數== 一個 $A \rightarrow B$ 可以用來表示 $A \times B$ 的子集合,這個子集合是一個函數 $f$,其數學表達為: $$ \forall x \in A, \exists y \in B \, ((x, y) \in f) $$ 這表示對於所有來自集合 $A$ 的元素 $x$,存在至少一個來自集合 $B$ 的元素 $y$,使得有序對 $(x, y)$ 屬於集合 $f$。 此外,為了確保函數的唯一性: $$ \forall x \in A, \forall y_1, y_2 \in B \, ([(x, y_1) \in f \land (x, y_2) \in f] \rightarrow y_1 = y_2) $$ 這表示如果某個元素 $x$ 透過函數 $f$ 同時與 $B$ 中的兩個元素 $y_1$ 和 $y_2$ 相關聯,則這兩個元素 $y_1$ 和 $y_2$ 必須相等,確保每個 $x$ 只對應一個 $y$。 --- #### Introduce - 映射、像與原像 給你一個集合$A$與集合$B$,我們說$f$是由$A$映射$B$所組成,則 $A$被稱為$f$的定義域 $B$被稱為$f$的值域 如果$f(a) = b$,==則$b$被稱為$f$在$a$的像==,==$a$被稱為$b$的像原== 當兩個函數有相同的定義域,相同的域值,還有兩個函數的像與像原映射相同,則兩個函數相同。 --- #### Introduce - 單射 函數$f$被稱做==一對一函數==,或者稱做==單射==,也就是對於所有在定義域的$a, b$,若且唯若$f(a) = f(b)$,則$a = b$。 函數$f$如果是一對一函數,則這個函數是個單射函數。 --- #### Introduce - 滿射 若有兩集合$A, B$,若且唯若所有元素$b \in B$,存在一個$a \in A$,使得$f(a) = b$,則稱做這個函數為滿射函數。 ![截圖 2024-04-13 晚上8.04.26](https://hackmd.io/_uploads/rydAVlOgR.png) --- #### Introduce - 對射 若一個函數是一對一函數,且函數滿射,則我們稱作這個函數是一對一對應函數或叫做對射函數。 --- #### Introduce - 反函數 令$f$是一個集合$A$對集合$B$的對射函數,$f$的反函數寫作$f^{-1}$。 反函數$f^{-1}$代表集合$B$對集合$A$的函數,定義為若且唯若$f^{-1}(y) = x$則$f(x) = y$。 --- #### Introduce - 複合函數 令$f$為集合$B$對集合$C$的函數,且$g$為集合$A$對集合$B$的函數,$f$與$g$的複合函數,寫作$f \circ g$,代表一個集合$A$對集合$C$的函數,定義為$(f \circ g)(x) = f(g(x))$。 --- #### Introduce - 函數的圖形 令$f$為一個集合$A$對集合$B$函數,函數$f$的圖形即為每一對的$(a, b)$,即為 $\{(a, b) | a \in A \land f(a) = b\}$ --- #### Introduce - 一些重要的函數 ==底函數代表將小於等於$x$之最大整數指派給實數$x$,記為$\lfloor x \rfloor$== 頂函數代表將大於等於$x$之最小整數指派給實數$x$,記為$\lfloor x \rfloor$ 階乘函數$f: \mathbb{N} \rightarrow \mathbb{Z}^+$,記為$f(n) = n! = 1 \times 2 \times .... \times n$,其中$n \in \mathbb{Z}^+$。 ##### Table - 頂函數與升函數 ![image-20210322170033159](https://i.imgur.com/8qsQOXA.png) #### Introduce - 部分函數 令$f$為一個集合$A$對集合$B$函數。 若$f$的定義域$D(f) \subseteq A$,且$f$的值域$R(f) \subseteq B$,則我們稱$f$為一部分函數。 --- ### 2.4 數列與總和 #### Definition - 序列 - 序列是有序的表列,例如$1, 3, 5, 7, 9$,或者$1, 4, 9, 16, 25$。 - 序列是一個整數子集的函數。 - 我們使用符號$\{a_n\}$來描述序列。 ##### Example 考慮序列$a_n$,其中$a_n = \dfrac{1}{n}$ 由$a_1$開始,可記為$a_1, a_2, a_3, a_4, ...$ 前幾項為$1, \dfrac{1}{2}, \dfrac{1}{3}, \dfrac{1}{4}...$ --- #### Introduce - 幾何數列 一個幾何數列可以表示成:$a, ar, ar^2, ar^3, ... ,ar^n$,其中$a$為首項,$r$為公比。 ##### Example 若有一序列$a_n = (-1)^n$,則我們說這==是一個幾何數列==,因為$a_n$的前幾項為$1, -1, 1, -1 ...$,即為$a=1$,$r = -1$。 --- #### Introduce - 算術數列 一個算術數列可以表示成:$a, a+d, a+2d, a+3d, ..., a+nd$,其中$a$為首項,$d$為公差 ##### Example 若有一序列$a_n = 1 + 3n$,則我們說這是一個算術數列,因為$a_n$的前幾項為$1, 4, 7, 10...$,即為$a = 1$,$r = 3$。 --- #### Definition - 字串 - 字串為有限字元數所組成的序列。 - 一個不含任何項的字串稱作空字串。 --- #### Introduce - 遞迴關係式 遞迴關係,也就是差分方程式,是一種遞推地定義一個序列的方程式:序列的每一項目是定義為前一項的函數。 ##### Example - 斐波納契數列 一個Fibonacci Sequence可以由以下的性質定義 $F_0 = 0$ $F_1 = 1$ $F_n = F_{n-2} + F_{n-1}$ 因此,斐波納契數列的序列為 $\{0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21 ...\}$ --- ### 2.5 集合的勢 #### Definition - 勢 - 令A與B為兩個集合,若且唯若A與B對射,則集合A與集合B的勢是相同的,寫作$|A| = |B|$。 - 令A與B為兩個集合,若且唯若A與B==單射==,則集合A的勢小於等於集合B的勢,寫作$|A| \le |B|$。 如果集合A的勢與集合B的勢不同,則$|A| < |B|$。 - 一個==集合==如果是==有限的==,或者==與正整數集合的勢相同==,則我們說這個==集合是可數的==,否則就是不可數的。 例如一個實數集合是個不可數的集合。 - 如果一個無限的集合是可數的,他的勢為$ℵ_0$,寫作$|S| = ℵ_0$,且唸做"aleph null"。 - 一個無限集合的勢,若且唯若可以將所有的元素列成一個數列,則我們說這個無限集合的勢是可數的。 原因是一個無限集合的勢,可以寫作一個對射函數,且函數的index是正整數,故我們可以寫成這樣的形式: $f(1) = a_1, f(2) = a_2, ... f(n) = a_n$ 故根據「一個集合如果是有限的,或者與正整數集合的勢相同,則我們說這個集合是可數的」,我們可以知道無限集合的勢,若且唯若可以將所有的元素列成一個數列,則我們說這個集合是無限的。 --- #### Introduce - 希爾伯特旅館悖論 一個有無限間房間的旅館,每一個房間均住滿人,我們要怎麼樣能夠再容納一個旅客? 假設我們有無限多個客人,我們將每個客人$j$編號成$a_j$,新的客人我們表示成$a_0$,則我們可以寫成這樣的形式 $f(1) = a_1, f(2) = a_2, f(3) = a_3, f(4) = a_4, ..., f(n) = a_n, ...$ 我們可以將第$i$房的人,請他移駕至第$i+1$房,這樣就會使第一間房間空出來。 $g(1) = a_0, g(2) = a_1, g(3) = a_2, g(4) = a_3,..., g(n) = a_{n-1}, ...$ 可以顯而易見的知道這樣分配不會使房間編號撞號。 --- ##### Example - 證明集合是可數的(1) 證明正偶數整數集合$E$是可數的。 令$f(x) = 2x$,則我們可以將其列成序列,也就是 $f(1) = 2, f(2) = 4, f(3) = 6, f(4) = 8, ..., f(n) = 2n$ 我們可以證明這個函數是對射,假設$t$為偶正整數,則它可以寫成$2k$的形式,故每一個$t$存在唯一一個$k$,使得$f(k) = t$ 我們可以證明這個函數是一對一函數,假設存在$f(n) = f(m)$,必定存在$2n = 2m$,也就是存在$n = m$ 故若$n = m$,才能使得$f(n) = f(m)$ 根據勢的定義,「一個無限集合的勢,若且唯若可以將所有的元素列成一個數列,則我們說這個無限集合的勢是可數的。」 因此$f(x) = 2x$是可數的。 ##### Example - 證明集合是可數的(2) 證明整數集合$Z$是可數的。 將集合$Z$列成:$0, 1, -1, 2, -2, 3, -3 ... $ 我們可以寫成以下的部分函數:$f(x) = \left\{ \begin{array}\ f(x) = -(x-1)/2 & x \in \text{odd} \\ f(x) = x/2 & x \in \text{even} \end{array}\right.$

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