<!-- slideOptions: spotlight: enabled: false --> # 3/30 (affodance) ## [Sensorimotor brain dynamics <br>reflect <br>architectural affordances](https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/116/29/14769.full.pdf) > [name=劉昱劭] > https://bit.ly/cecnl_0330 ---- * 感知 perception ~ cognition ~ sensation * 動作 action ~ movement ~ motor * 感覺動作/感知肌動 sensorimotor ---- ```graphviz digraph G { "Psycology Ψ" -> "Cognitive\n Psycology\n認知心理學"; "Psycology Ψ" -> "Perceptual\n Psycology"; "Psycology Ψ" -> "Social\n Psycology"; "Cognitive\n Psycology\n認知心理學" -> "Enactivism" [label="Embodied\n Cognition"]; } ``` --- ## 1. Intro * 1-1. 這篇 paper 做了啥 * 1-2. Terminology * 1-3. 已知 * 1-4. Results * 1-5. Claim ---- ### 1-1. 這篇 paper 做了啥 * Using VR & EEG, we provide a unique perspective on > the relationship among <br> cognition, movement, environment ---- ### 1-2. Terminology ---- * #### Affordance * ~~直觀功能、承擔特質、環境賦使、預設用途、可操作暗示、示能性、可供性~~ * 物品被認為有什麼用途  ---- * Def) <br>The **affordance of a given spatial env** [1.~] :::info the perception of possibilities for an action that the environment offers ::: agent 需要 affordance 才能做出有意義的行為。 我們可以說 affordance 就是人如何與這個世界互動的「中心準則」(center concept)。 *[1.~]: J. J. Gibson, The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception (Psychology Press–Taylor & Francis Group, East Sussex, UK, 1986). ---- * 有其他 paper 定義的更精準 [2.~] *[2.~]: A. Clark, An embodied cognitive science? Trends Cogn. Sci. 3, 345–351 (1999) :::info the possibilities for use, intervention, and action which the physical world offers a given agent and are determined by the ‘fit’ between the agent’s physical structure, capacities, and skills and the action-related properties of the environment itself ::: ---- * Embodied cognition (Active Inference) ++features of cognition++ are shaped by aspects of ++the entire body of the organism++. * features of cognition: * concept, category * entire body: * motor system, perceptual system * interaction with environment * assumptions about the world that are built into the structure of the organism. ---- * #### perceptual process 知覺歷程 * stimulus * transformed * receptor processes * neural processing * perception (cognition) * recognition(combine with knowledge) * action ---- * #### system * 有 input 有 output 的東西就是 system  * a cell bounded by its Markov Blanket ---- * Free Energy Principle * systems try to minimize error b/w their ++model of the world++ & ++sense, perception++  ---- * example 爬山 * max y  ---- * example 視覺腦補  ---- * predictive coding/processing (embodied cognition 的一個理論) * 說動作系統(motor systems)的目標是在取消掉持續收進來的感知訊號，轉而用預測來取代 * (aim at canceling out continuously incoming bottom-up sensory signals with top-down predictions.) ---- * Both ++sensory system++ & ++motor system++ follow Free Energy Principle * 「感知」和「動作」都會被腦補 ---- #### action–perception loop * perception 不是固定的結果，會透過「動作」產生的預測誤差不斷更新。 * that perception is rooted in action, creating an action–perception loop informed by dynamically generated prediction errors.  ---- * 作者想用腦部活動驗證 action-perception loop，並加入 affordance 來闡述 * neural dynamics underlying perception would be intimately dependent on the affordances of a given environment. ---- ### 1-3. 已知 * action–perception loop * 「感知」不是固定的結果 會被「動作」的誤差動態更新 * perceptual process * 「感知」會被腦補 * predictive coding * 「動作」會被腦補 ---- ### 1-4. Results ::: info cortical potentials vary as a function of bodily affordances reflected by the physical environment. ::: ---- ### 1-5. Claim :::warning 1. the results imply that cognition is inherently related to the potential movement of the body; thus, we posit that ++action++ is **interrelated** with ++perception++, actively influencing the perceivable ++environment++. 2. these results indicate that ++moving++ in space is to continuously construct a **prediction** of a world of **affordances**, suggesting that architects take up the continuity of spaces, given that the unfolding of bodily movement alters perception and experience. ::: ---- #### 已知 * action–perception loop * 「感知」不是固定結果，會由「動作」的誤差動態更新 * perceptual process * 「感知」會被腦補 * predictive coding * 「動作」會被腦補 ---- #### 作者推論 * 1. 「動作」和「感知」互相影響，「動作」會動態改變環境 (affordance) * 2. 「動作」過程中被腦補的就是 affordance ---- > potential actions afforded by an environment influence perception. 環境誘發的動作電位會影響感知 --- ## 2. Methods (Experiments) * 2-1. Participants * 2-2. Paradigm * 2-3. Subjective & Behavioral Data * 2-4. EEG Recoding ---- ### 2-1. Participants. * 20 人，11 男 9 女， <br> 沒有神經病理學經驗，德國大學抽樣。 * 年齡：μ = 28.1 y, σ = 6.2 y * 有知情同意，有支薪或認證時數。 * 所有人矯正視力正常，沒有建築系背景。 * 一人因 experiment setup 中技術問題被剔除。 ---- ### 2-2. Paradigm Description. * 實驗場域： Berlin Mobile Brain/Body Imaging Lab (BeMoBIL) in an experimental rooms with an area of 160 m^2^. * VR 空間大小： The size of the virtual space was 9 m × 5 m, with room sizes of 4.5 m × 5 m for the first room and 4.5 m × 5 m for the second room. ---- * paradigm 類型： forewarned (S1-S2) Go/NoGo paradigm (50%/50%) * 動作要求： (in VR) Required them to walk from one room to a second room. ---- * 控制變因：**Doors of different widths** > manipulated the transition affordance between rooms. >  * unpassable (20 cm, Narrow) * passable (100 cm, Mid) * easily passible (1,500 cm, Wide) ---- * 實驗類別：3 × 2 repeated-measures design * Door Width/movement instruction | | Go | NoGo | | ------ | --- | --- | | **Narrow** | 40 trials/人 | 40 | | **Mid** | 40 | 40 | | **Wide** | 40 | 40 | ---- * 實驗過程： * 1. 初始狀態：黑暗環境 3±1 s -> 開燈 * 2. 開燈：看到門，等門變色 (6±1s) * 2-1. Go: 門變綠色 * 2-2. NoGo: 門變紅色 * 3. main() * 3-1: 受測者一進門，指示他用 VR 搖桿碰紅圈，有碰到加薪 0.1 歐。 * 3-2: 不用動 * 每 trial 後，受測者填情緒量表 * 4. 回原地(用VR桿)填表 -> 填完關燈回 1. * 4-1: 指示走回原本的 room * 4-2: 不用動 ---- * 實驗過程圖示 (Fig 1.(A)) >  >  ---- #### 實驗重點 (?) * 不管 door width，Go trial 都會指示進門 * 確保 movement 和 affordance 無關 * control for motor execution in the Go condition and to allow movement toward the goal irrespective of the affordance (passable vs. unpassable). ---- #### 實驗重點 (?) * 窄門： * GO: 要求通過，受測者應會靠近門。 受測者碰到門旁可轉動視角，來發現這個門縫過不去 * NoGO: 不要求移動到門。 ---- #### 實驗重點 (?) * 受測者很快會注意到：窄門不可能通過，除非寫 feedback 說「他們 fail to pass 還被要求 pass」 * Participants would quickly notice that the narrow door (20 cm) was impossible to pass without producing the warning feedback that they have failed to pass, and yet they were required to try passing. ---- #### 實驗重點 (?) * Pre-train 受測者： * 要先習慣不同條件的 VR 環境。 * 施測者： * 位在實驗場域外，用兩支鏡頭看 VR 環境，實驗中 minimize 與受測者互動。 ---- ### 2-3. Subjective and Behavioral Data. #### Subjective data * 用 SAM 問卷研究 subjective experience * pleasure, arousal, and dominance on a 5-point Likert scale * After each trial * 情緒三維 * Arousal / Dominance / Valence ---- #### Behavioral data * 記錄 door approaching times * from the onset of the Go stimulus (door color change) to reaching the opening threshold itself * 1-way ANOVA on door width ---- ### 2-4. EEG Recording and Data Analysis. *[LSL]: LabStreamLayer * MoBI approach * To investigate **transitional affordances** on ++human cognition++ & ++brain dynamics++ * Recording brain dynamics in participants actively transitioning through virtual rooms. * 資料流皆由 LSL 記錄並同步 ---- * MoBI Setup  * 背包裝 HPC 電腦 * render VR + EEG 放大器 ---- #### EEG data * EEG data were acquired continuously with a * 64-channel EEG system (eegoSports, ANT Neuro) * sampled at 500 Hz * Impedances were kept below 10 kΩ. ---- #### EEG data * computational delay * generated by the interaction of * ANT Neuro software * Windows Mixed Reality * Unity * measured as 20 ms (σ = 4 ms), * During analyses, subtracting the avg delay from each event latency. * considered to no impact on the ERPs ---- #### EEG analysis * MATLAB (MathWorks) with EEGLAB. * The raw data were bandpass-filtered b/w 1 & 100 Hz * down-sampled to 250 Hz. * Channels w/ more than five SDs from <br> the joint probability of the recorded electrodes <br> were removed and subsequently interpolated. * re-referenced to an average reference ---- #### EEG analysis * adaptive mixture ICA was computed on the remaining rank of the data * one model * online artifact rejection * 5 iterations. ---- * The resultant ICA spheres and weights matrices were transferred to the raw dataset that was preprocessed using the identical preprocessing parameters as for the ICA dataset, except for the filtering, which used a bandpass filter from 0.2 Hz to 40 Hz. ---- * Subsequently, independent components reflecting eye movements (i.e., blinks and horizontal movements) were removed manually based on their topographic, spectral, and temporal characteristics. <!-- ---- * Epochs were created time-locked to the onset of the room including the closed door (lights on) from −500 ms before to 1,500 ms after stimulus onset for Narrow, Mid, and Wide door trials. Similarly, another set of epochs was time-locked to the second Go/NoGo stimulus from −500 ms before to 1,000 ms after onset of the stimulus for Narrow, Mid, and Wide door trials. * On average, 15% (σ = 10.8) of all epochs were automatically rejected when they deviated by >5 SDs from the joint probability and distribution of the activity of all recorded electrodes. * The visual evoked potentials and MRCPs were analyzed at central midline electrodes (Fz, FCz, Cz, Pz, POz, and Oz) covering all relevant locations, including the visual cortex and the motor cortex, as reported previously (31,38). * Because stimuli were distributed across the complete visual field and participants walked through the virtual spaces, we did not expect to see any lateralization of ERPs. All channels were analyzed; however, only three channels (FCz, Pz, and Oz) are discussed here, according to findings reported by Bozzacchi et al. (31). The analysis results of all six channels are provided in SI Appendix. For peak analysis of the P1-N1 complex, the grand average peaks were estimated, and individual peaks were defined as the maximum positive peak and negative peak in the time window surrounding the grand average P1 and N1 peaks (±10 ms from the peak), respectively. An automatic peak detection algorithm detected the peaks in the averaged epochs for each participant. Multiple peaks were detected and systematically weighted depending on the magnitude, the distance to the grand average peak latency as determined by visual inspection of grand average ERP, and the polarity. The algorithm is provided in SI Appendix. For anterior N140 and posterior P140, by visual inspection of the grand average ERPs, the estimated grand average latency was 140 ms, with a search window for individual peaks ranging from 50 to 200 ms. For the anterior P215 and posterior N215, the estimated grand average peak latency was 215 ms, with a search window for individual peaks ranging from 140 to 290 ms. Mean peak amplitudes were analyzed by 3 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA using the door width (Narrow, Mid, or Wide) and electrode as repeated measures. The results descriptions focus on the visual evoked P140 component at posterior electrodes (Pz, POz, and Oz) and the N140 component at frontal leads (Fz, FCz, and Cz) based on separate ANOVAs. * For the N215 and P215 components at posterior electrodes (Pz, POz, and Oz) and frontal leads (Fz, FCz, and Cz), separate ANOVAs were computed in the time range of 140–290 ms. * For the later motor-related potentials, an ANOVA was computed for the mean amplitude in the range of 600–800 ms. * The data were analyzed using a 2 × 3 × 6 factorial repeated-measures ANOVA with the factors imperative stimulus (Go and NoGo), door width (Narrow, Mid, and Wide), and electrode location (Fz, FCz, Cz, Pz, POz, and Oz) within the time window (600–800 ms). * For post hoc analysis, the data were contrasted using Tukey’s HSD. In cases of violation of sphericity, corrected P values are reported. All ANOVAs were computed as linear mixed models. --> --- ## 3. Results * 3-1. 主觀資料 SAM Ratings. * 3-2. 行為資料 Door Approaching Times. * 3-3. 電生理訊號 EEG ---- ### 3-1. Subjective Data: SAM Ratings. * emotional dimension * Arousal * Dominance * Valence ---- * Go/NoGo 都有收問卷 * A 2 × 3 factorial repeated-measures ANOVA * imperative stimulus (Go and NoGo) * 情緒三維都顯著差異 * door width (Narrow, Mid, and Wide) * 情緒三圍都顯著差異 * Interaction effects * 僅 Dominance, Valence 統計顯著差異，Arousal 有集中趨勢。 ----  ---- * Post hoc test (Tukey’s HSD) * Arousal * Go: narrow x mid 顯著差：表示 narrow 有驚到人 * Dominance * Go: 顯著差：可能越 narrow 越讓人控制欲被牙起來 * Valence * Go: 顯著差：明顯門越開人越開心 ---- ### 3-2. Behavioral Data: <br> Door Approaching Times. * 只收 Go 資料 * one-way ANOVA with repeated measures for different **door widths** * Post hoc test (Tukey’s HSD) ----  * narrow x mid 無顯著差異 * narrow x wide 顯著差異，若門縫 narrow 受測者會走比較久(花更多時間)才靠近門。 ---- ### 3-3. Electrophysiology: Early ERP. Posterior P140.  ---- * onset: lights on * ERPs P1-N1 complex * most pronounced over the Oz * pos-peak @ 140 ms, neg-peak @ 210 ms * At FCz, this pattern was inverted ---- #### Posterior P140. <!--* The 3 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA on P140 amplitudes for posterior channels revealed significant main effects for both door width (F2,108 = 8.163, P = 0.005, η2 = 0.096) and channel (F2,36 = 15.868, P < 0.0001, η2 = 0.187). * The interaction effect was not significant (F4,108 = 1.669, P = 0.1624). * Post hoc comparisons using Tukey’s HSD test revealed significant differences in peak amplitudes at channel Oz between Narrow and Mid transitions (P = 0.0021) and between Narrow and Wide transitions (P = 0.0065) and at channel POz between Narrow and Wide transitions (P = 0.028). --> #### Posterior N215. <!--N215 The 3 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA on mplitudes for posterior channels revealed a significant main effect for the factor door width (F2,108 = 4.348, P = 0.0153, η2 = 0.066) but no significant impact for the factor channels (F2,36 = 0.0893, P = 0.9147, η2 = 0.001). Post hoc Tukey HSD contrasts revealed no significant differences for Pz and POz. However, similar to posterior P140, significant differences at Oz for the comparison of Narrow and Mid transitions (P = 0.0113) and for the comparison of Narrow and Wide transitions (P = 0.0372) were found (Fig. 6). --> #### Anterior P215. <!--An inverse pattern was observed for amplitudes over anterior leads, with a main effect of door width that differed depending on the affordances (F2,108 = 11.071, P < 0.0001, η2 = 0.139). The main effect of channels also reached significance (F2,36 = 5.3627, P = 0.0092, η2 = 0.067). Tukey HSD contrasts revealed significant differences only between Narrow and Wide transitions for FCz (P = 0.0071) and Cz (P = 0.0214), with a tendency at Fz (P = 0.0717). The interaction was not significant.--> #### Anterior N140. <!-- The 3 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA on N140 amplitudes for anterior channels revealed no significant main effect for the factor door width (F2,108 = 1.823, P = 0.1663, η2 = 0.024). In contrast, the main effect of channels reached significance (F2,108 = 8.109, P = 0.0012, η2 = 0.107). The interaction did not reach significance.--> #### EEG–motor-related processes. <!-- After onset of the imperative stimulus, a positive peak at anterior leads and a negative peak at posterior leads were observed. For the sake of brevity, this potential complex is referred to as the early postimperative complex (EPIC). Reflecting its similar cortical polarity to the P1-N1 complex, the EPIC was analyzed in a similar way, separating anterior leads (Fz, FCz, and Cz) from posterior leads (Pz, POz, and Oz), and detecting single peaks in individual averages. Anterior EPIC. A 2 × 3 × 3 repeated-measures ANOVA revealed significant differences in the main effect for widths (F2,270 = 4.21, P = 0.0157, η2 = 0.025), imperative stimulus (F1,270 = 23.66, P < 0.0001, η2 = 0.071), and channel (F2,36 = 6.70, P = 0.0033, η2 = 0.040). No interaction effect was observed. The post hoc Tukey’s HSD test revealed no significant differences between the transition widths for the various channels and for the imperative stimuli.--> #### Posterior EPIC. <!--The identical ANOVA for the posterior potentials of the EPIC revealed no significant impact of transition width (F2,270 = 2.001, P = 0.1371, η2 = 0.013) or imperative stimulus (F1,270 = 2.30, P = 0.1298, η2 = 0.007). Significant differences in EPIC amplitudes were observed for the factor channel (F2,36 = 5.45, P = 0.0085, η2 = 0.035). Because topographical differences were not the focus of this study, no further post hoc contrasts were computed. No interaction was significant. --> ---- #### PINV. <!--In the preparation time before the onset of the door color change, indicating that the participant was either to walk through the door or remain in the same room, we observed no systematic negative going waveform as reported in previous studies (29, 39). However, after the onset of the color change, a pronounced positivity, the EPIC, followed by a long-lasting negative waveform over frontocentral locations was observed in the ERP (Fig. 7 ; all six channels shown in SI Appendix, Fig. S2). This negative waveform resembled a PINV, as described previously (32, 34, 40). The PINV component was observed at 600–800 ms after the imperative stimulus (color change of the door) and varied as a function of the affordance of the environment (door width). A global 2 × 3 × 6 factorial repeated-measures ANOVA was computed to analyze the MRCPs using Go/NoGo, width, and channel as repeated measures. ANOVA revealed significant differences in the main effect for Go/NoGo (F1,540 = 19.54, P < 0.0001, η2 = 0.039) and for channel (F5,90 = 16.69, P < 0.0001, η2 = 0.112). Significant differences were reported for the interaction effect of Go/NoGo × channel (F5,540 = 5.25, P = 0.0001, η2 = 0.035) and for width × channel (F10,540 = 2.61, P = 0.0042, η2 = 0.035). A tendency toward an interaction of the factors Go/NoGo × Width (F2,540 = 2.33, P = 0.0975, η2 = 0.006) was observed. * Post hoc contrasts using Tukey’s HSD test revealed significant differences only for the Go condition as opposed to the NoGo condition (Fig. 8). Similar to the early evoked potentials, differences were observed only at frontal and occipital sites and between Narrow and Mid doors over FCz (P = 0.0059) and Oz (P < 0.0001), as well as between Narrow and Wide doors at FCz (P = 0.0323) and Oz (P < 0.0001). No differences were observed between the Mid and Wide doors (SI Appendix, Fig. S3). --> ----  --- ## 4. Discussion * Goal: whether **brain activity** is altered depending on the **affordances** offered by the environment. * Brain_Activity $\propto$？ Affordance * If true: > ```graphviz > digraph G > { > Affordance -> Behavior ; > Affordance -> Brain_Activity; > } > ``` ---- * Specifically, we hypothesized that <br> ++perceptual processes++ covary with the ++environmental affordances++, <br> leading to ++behavioral changes++, and that MRCPs would vary as a function of affordances. ---- ### 4-1. SAM and Approach Time. <!-- --> | | | | -------- | -------- | |  | 1. Go/NoGo diff <br> 2. ++Dominance++ <br> Narrow > Mid > Wide <br> 3. ++Valence++ <br> Narrow > Mid > Wide <br><br>有無 Go cue <br>(action→perception) <br> 門寬 <br> (affordance→perception)| ---- <!-- * SAM 問卷看出 Go/NoGo 顯著差異 * Door sizes (Go) yields diff for ++Dominance++ * Narrow > Mid > Wide * Door sizes (Go) yields diff for ++Valence++ * Narrow < Mid < Wide * 有沒有收到 Go cue 會情緒起伏有差。 * action -> perception * 門寬對情緒也有影響 * affordance -> perception --> ---- * SAM 是主觀意見，易受影響。 * 考慮 approaching time，相對客觀 * wide 明顯比 narrow 快 * affordance -> action  ---- ### 4-2. Cortical Measures. #### Early evoked potentials. <!--As an initial insight into the association of affordances and cortical potentials, we analyzed the early visualevoked potentials. We expected to find differences in the stimuluslocked ERP at occipital channels, reflecting differences in sensory processing of affordance-related aspects of the transition. Based on the assumption of fast sensorimotor active inferences that should be reflected in action-directed stimulus processing influencing not only sensory activity, but also motor-related activity, we hypothesized that we would also find differences in the ERP over motor areas in the same time window as sensory potentials (i.e., between 50 and 200 ms). As illustrated in the analysis, we found significant differences in amplitudes of the visually evoked P140 component over the central occipital electrode varying with the affordance of the transition. In addition, and in line with our hypothesis, we also found a difference over frontocentral leads starting around 50 ms and lasting until 200 ms after onset of the door display. Taken together, these findings indicate that no significant differences in peak amplitudes were found between the passable Mid and Wide doors, while peak amplitudes associated with both door widths significantly differed from those of the impassable Narrow doors. Note that the visual scene of the three doors was comparable, as they contained the same physical contrasts in the Go and the NoGo condition. In addition, being merely introduced to the environmental setting, participants did not know whether they would have to attempt to pass. These results indicate that impassable doors with poor affordances produce significantly different early evoked potentials compared with passable doors, particularly at the frontocentral and occipital sites. Thus, environmental affordances, in terms of being able to program a trajectory to transit spaces, yield a significant measurable effect on early cortical potentials best pronounced over frontal and occipital sites at ∼200 ms after the first view of the environment. Considering the affordance-specific pattern observed for the early P1-N1 complex, previous studies have shown that this visual-evoked potential complex reflects attentional processes associated with spatial or feature-based aspects of stimuli (41– 45). Attended stimuli elicit larger P1-N1 amplitudes than unattended stimuli. Based on these findings, our results suggest that passable transitions were associated with increased attentional processing. Keeping this in mind, when viewing the affordance-specific pattern of the P1-N1 complex in light of active inferences (46), the difference confirms the assumption that perceptual processes covary with environmental affordances. In this sense, the amplitude difference might be credited to the process of actively inferring whether the body can move and transit at all, implying that visual attention is also guided by action-related properties of the environment. Similar to HAC (23) and active inference (22, 47), these findings are in line with parallel cortical processes integrating sensory information to specify currently available affordances. How one might act on the environment is an ongoing process of resolving affordances, taking place as early as perceptual processes, which situates actions in an intimate position with perception. Such early processes are deeply involved in the conception and articulation of the environment for an agent, pointing toward the importance of movement in cognition, and of how an agent continuously enacts the world. #### Motor-related potentials. Although the ERP plots indicated an affordance trend of the EPIC, statistical tests revealed no significant differences. However, the Narrow door width elicited the greatest amplitude in both anterior positivity and posterior negativity. The increased amplitude associated with Narrow transitions can be interpreted as a reflection of the body simply not fitting, producing a prediction error because one is forced to interact with the transition. The nature of the PINV component has not been as well investigated as other ERP components, limiting the reliability of an interpretation. Some studies treat this component as modality-unspecific “electrocortical correlate of a cognitive state” (48). Gauthier and Gottesmann (49) hypothesized that the PINV, similar to affordances, acts as a marker of change in the psychophysiological state. Subsequently, the PINV has been used to investigate depression, schizophrenia, learned helplessness, and loss of control (32–34, 50, 51). Depressive and schizophrenic individuals exhibit an increased PINV that is explained as an increased vulnerability for loss of control, as well as increased anticipation for future events (32, 34, 40). It must be emphasized that affordances reflect actions directed toward the future. If an increased PINV reflects increased vulnerability for future events, as we observed for impassable doors, then the component might shed new light on the intentionality in affordances. Given the intention to pass, yet being deprived of doing so, seems to be reflected in the PINV. Casement et al. (34) suggested the PINV depends on lack of control as the state of having no influence, depriving the potential to act. This could explain the difference in the Narrow condition, as participants were instructed to attempt to pass at all times until failure, even for impassable openings, leading to a sense of loss of control. Only in cases of Go did we observe a difference in the PINV component, which varied with the environmental affordances. Amplitudes of the component for Narrow doors differed significantly different from those for Mid and Wide doors, while the passable conditions did not differ among the doors. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in the PINV component in cases of NoGo, emphasizing the importance of the motor execution itself in evoking the PINV component. These results point toward the PINV component as an expression of the readiness to interact with the designed environment (i.e., less negative for passable doors and more negative for impassable doors), thus serving as a potential marker for the readiness to act given environmental affordances. Our results are also consistent with the observed increase in activity over frontocentral sites reported by Bozzacchi et al. (31), who concluded that the meaning of the action and awareness of being able to act— affordances—affect action preparation, which is here understood as the motor-related potential before movement onset. We argue that the PINV component might reflect a readiness aspect of affordances. This would mean that the PINV is not modulated by the perception that the door is different visual information, but reveals something about the readiness to act. For this reason, we find significant differences in cases of Go but not in cases of NoGo, and also for passable compared with impassable. In light of HAC (23), a potential explanation for the absence of differences in the NoGo trials is related to the immediate action selection, which in all cases (Narrow, Mid, and Wide) is a simple turn to answer the questionnaire, and thus the task presents the participant with identical affordances. When instead given a Go, cortical processes require an action selection related to the anticipated motor trajectory, which differs according to the affordances of the door width. HAC suggests the higher levels bias the lower-level competitions, which operate at the level of action itself, through a cascade of expected next affordances. The lower levels have a continuous competition of how to satisfy the higher expectations. Action selection, executed while unfolding the planned movements in a continuous manner, depends on the expectation of next affordances. Of note, regarding architectural experience, because the PINV component was expressed only in the Go condition (i.e., forced interaction with the environment), these findings support the importance of movement for architectural experience, in a sense that action or even only the perception of action possibilities alters brain activity. Visually guiding and propelling the body in space greatly influences the continuous emerging of affordances, which in turn affect the human experience. We found differences in frontocentral and occipital areas before movement through space, with the postimperative negative-going waveform most pronounced over FCz indicating involvement of the supplementary motor area (SMA), as reported by Bozzacchi et al. (31). Previous studies showed involvement of the SMA in visually guided actions (52), which is the essence of active inferences. The PINV can be generated independently from the reafferent signal, which is, in terms of active inference, understood as ascending (bottom-up) proprioceptive prediction errors (53). This suggests that the PINV component might reflect descending (top-down) predictions, making the SMA an essential area of the action–perception loop and thus crucial for processing continuous affordances. This might resolve the finding of frontocentral differences in Go trials only. The SMA is anatomically bridging the frontal cortex with the motor cortex— perhaps also functionally, as argued by Adams et al. (53), because this anatomical nature fits with the proposed hierarchical characteristics of forward and backward projections in active inferences. Using VR to investigate cortical processes has its natural limitations, such as the absence of a physical body. Regarding the sense of body, which is at stake in the present study, it has been suggested that VR “may offer new embodied ways for assessing the functioning of the brain by directly targeting the processes behind real-world behaviors” (54), which is remarkably valid for the present study. Riva et al. (54) argued that the brain’s predictive capability immerses the body, and thus related processes, if the visual perception is in line with the body’s actions, for instance, by head movements and wandering. Through a process of trial and error, the brain and body adjust to VR. Furthermore, in terms of architecture, VR as a head-mounted display (55) and as a CAVE system (56) has been integrated into studies with bodily and environmental interests, yielding comparable results. However, VR in combination with neuroscientific methods remains a newer technique and thus must be used with care. It must be emphasized that the purpose of VR in the current experimental setup was to isolate and control the factor of interest. Future studies using MoBI in real-world environments are needed to investigate whether the results from VR can be generalized to the real world. --> ----  ----  ----  --- ## 5. Conclusion * **Affordance** 跟 perceptual process 一樣早被大腦處理。 * 對 active inference 來說，action 和 perception 同等重要。 ---- * 大腦似乎是同時 **output "how can I act"** 和 **input "what do I perceive"** * 支持假設：對環境的 perception 會被 **affordance** 和 **action** 同時影響。 因此 affordance 和 action 可以影響環境。 * affodance & action 能大大影響 cognition * 對於研究 cognition，Enactivism 是個全面性的方法 ---- * 給建築師的建議：人是行動且「有預測能力」的東西，建築師應該把 temporal aspect 跟 spatial aspect 看得一樣重。 * 因為人有預測能力，所以建築師的設計應考慮時變觀點。 * 對身體移動的預測，會影響我們對空間的感知。 * 空間上的移動(過門)，是在連續對「我們觀測到的世界」做預測，這個預測 depends on 動作電位，動作電位會通知腦、身體、心智。 * 變化感知最終會造成人的生理反應。 ---- #### 已知 * action–perception loop * 「感知」不是固定結果，會由「動作」的誤差動態更新 * perceptual process * 「感知」會被腦補 * predictive coding * 「動作」會被腦補 ---- #### 作者推論 * 1. 「動作」和「感知」互相影響，「動作」會動態改變環境 (affordance) * 2. 「動作」過程中被腦補的就是 affordance --- # FIN --- ## 崩潰文 * 很難讀 * 專有名詞太多，想起大一生物的痛苦時光 * 句子太長，一個句子可以接超過五個子句，不知道丹麥人對話是不是都這麼辛苦。 ---- * 範例：2-1 participants: > Twenty participants (9 females) with no history of neurologic pathologies were recruited from a participant pool of the Technical University of Berlin, Germany. ---- * intro: affordance 的另一個定義 > “the possibilities for use, intervention, and action which the physical world offers a given agent and are determined by the ‘fit’ between the agent’s physical structure, capacities, and skills and the action-related properties of the environment itself.” > ---- ## 看沒有的部分 ### 5. conclusion * 我們沒說 architectural affordances 直接表示特定 ERP component * 提供一個證據說 action–perception We do not claim that architectural affordances are directly represented as a specific ERP component; 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