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# System prepended metadata

title: 脊椎生物 原始人種報告

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# 脊椎生物 原始人種報告


## Homo habilis 巧人(能人)

### 分類
1. Some paleoanthropologist(古人類學家) think H.habilis is australopiths(南方古猿屬) because of insufficient derived characters
2. Others think that H.habilis is genus Homo(人屬) due to some reasons
    * Smaller face 
    * Smaller jaw 
    * dentition with smaller cheek teeth and larger front teeth 
    Similar to Australopithecus
    * relative small body
    * some specialization for climbing
    
    differed from Australopithecus(南方古猿)


    * Larger cranium volumn(500-750 cm^3 in contrast to 380-450 cm^3 for Australopithecus afarensis(阿法南方古猿))

### Specialization
1. stone artifact and fossil bones with cut mark
    ->the use of tool and hunting(or at least scavenging)
    
### Split species
1. split H.habilis into two species
    * H.rudolfensis(盧多爾夫人)->about 1.9Ma
    * H.habilis(redefined) ->about 2.8-1.4Ma
2. H.rudolfensis have larger brain than H.habilis
3. H.rudolfensis was considered that wasn't a member of homo genus, but a descendent of Kenyanthropus platyops(肯亞平臉人)
    * Kenyanthropus platyops:介於人跟猿之間 為肯亞人屬的唯一物種
    * 而原因為盧多爾夫人像能人般缺乏後期人屬的獨有特徵
        * 修長的臀部
        * 複雜的排汗系統
        * 狹窄的生殖道
        * 腳長於手臂
        * 眼睛上的眼白
        * 幼小的毛髮露出皮膚
    * 但是又有些特徵不像猿而像人
        * 腦部較大
        * 雙足行走

## Homo erectus 直立人 and Homo ergaster 匠人


1. 最初被誤人為是猿人類 所以為Pithecanthropus erectus(直立猿人)
2. 擁有以下特徵，與現代人相似
    * large body
    * lacked adaptions for climbing
    * relatively small teeth and jaws
3. **first intercontinently distributed huminin**
4. old Africa form of H.erectus->H.ergaster
   Asian hominin->H.erectus
   differences between two species are subtle
5. several characteristic represent a significant change
    * substantially larger than earlier huminins(1.85m height 65kg weight), quiet similar with modern humans
        * major increased in female size->males only 20-30% larger than females->reduce sexual dimorphism
        * changes from polygynous mating system(一夫多妻) to monogamous pair bonding(一夫一妻)
    * Body proportions like those of anatomically modern humans
        * overall proportions of the postcranial skeleton->debates because of the fragmentary of the fossil material
        * short arms
        * long lower legs
        * narrow pelvis
        * barrow-shaped chest
    * Have larger brain than earlier Homo species
        * cranium volumn is 775-1100 cm^3->closer to 1200 cm^3 of modern human
        * larger brain->more nutrition need(brain is a metabolically demand organ)->better nutritional transmission efficiency
    * First hominins to have a humanlike nose(flat, board and have downward-facing nostrils)
    * But the other facial featrues were less like those of modern humans
        * relatively large teeth compared with modern human
        * jaw projected beyond the plane of the upper face(prognathous下巴突出的)
        * no chin(chin->下巴底下的那一小塊//jaw->下巴整體)
        * forehead was flat and sloping
        * bony eyebrow ridges were prominent(突出的)
    * Avid to making tools
        * Acheulian阿舍利:
            * 泛指舊石器時期早期在非洲 亞洲 歐洲所發現的石製工具種類
            * 石器左右對稱->視為具有做出標準化器具之能力
        * in East Asia, there's no Acheulian handaxes are found, a more refined type of Oldowan-like tool industry instead(?????? Oldowan is earlier than Acheulian)(https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E8%88%8D%E5%88%A9)
    * First hominins to have dalayed tooth eruption(牙齒較晚生長)
        * suggest that a humanlike extended childhood->humanlike lifespan and humanlike passage of learned information from one generation to the next
        * have relatively small teeth for their body size->they can cooked their food(因為煮過的食物較生食好入口)，but whether they can controll fire is controversial

## Dmanisi hominis 喬治亞原人
1. was found at Dmansi, Geogia(喬治亞的德馬尼西), is a countrry near Turkey
    ->earliest date of a human in Eurasia
2. Not clear whether is an early offshoot from H.erectus or from an earlier hominin species
3. characteristic leads paleoanthropologists suspect that they may have evolved from a less derived hominin
    * small braincase(546 cmˇ3), much smaller than H.erectus(~900 cm^3)
    * very large lower jaw
    * smaller strutrue(~1.5m)
    * prognathous of some individuals
    * elbow and shoulder joints 
    * lower limbs are long->suitable for running and distance travel
4. greater morphological variation

## Homo floresiensis 佛羅勒斯人
1. island rule->happened when species is isolated on an island
    * Small species evolve to larger body size
    * Large species become miniaturized
    * E.X. giant land tortoises found in Galápagos Islands and on Aldabra Island(阿爾達布拉環礁) are examples of giganism
2. was found in the island of Flores in eastern Indonesia(科摩多巨蜥的發現處), the species is very small
3. the origin is still a subject of debate, the most widely accepted hypothesis is derived from H.erectus; the other paleoanthropologist believed it is derived from a more basal hominin than H.erectus
4. Tools and remains have been found from 700000~50000 year old->contemporary (同時期的)of modern humans
5. characteristic
    * 1m tall->were called "the Hobbit"
    * primitive canines(犬齒) and premolars(前臼齒), advanced molars->dental traits that hasn't been seen in any other huminin
6. have a veriety of stone tools(blades, scrapers, penetrators)
7. Modern human appear shortly after H.floresiensis disappear->modern human may play a role that make H.floresiensis extinct, or even if the species interbred(雜交)

## Homo naledi 納萊迪人
1. characteristics that are more closely resembled those of modern humans
    * 1.5m tall
    * humanlike shoulders and pelvis
    * robust and relatively uncurved ribs
    * vertebrae had a spinal canal(椎孔)
    * foot is predominent modern himanlke, although it has more curved proximal foot phalanges(指骨)
    * hand has robust thumb and wrist->similar to modern human
        * but finger bone is longer and more curve than in most australopiths
        * indicates some degree of climbing
    * may eat hard and resistent food, because of high rates of dental chipping
2. How the bones ended up deposited in the deepest chamber of the cave system, which is hardly accessible, and the bones had not been damaged by scavengers or predators 
    ->suggest it's deliberately placed deep
    
## Precursors of Homo sapiens

1. Originally defined Homo sapiens not only modern human, but also Neandertals and some earlier forms. But too complicated->split into several differen species, Homo sapiens noe reserved to modern humans, the others are referred to **archaic古老的 Homo sapiens**
2. debates how to classify earliest fossils, is H.erectus or H.antecessor(前人)
3. Archaic Homo sapiens
    * Homo heidelbergensis 海德堡人
        * shows primitive characters
            * quite large cranium volumn(1300 cm^3) 
    * H.antecessor 前人
        * fossils show a mix of featrues of modern human and Neandertals
        * have cannibalistic(同類相食) practice
        * eat hard and brittle易碎的 foods  because they were confronted with harsh, fluctuated environent conditions
        * was consider a side branch to give rise to Neadertals in Europe and Homo sapiens in Africa