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title: Bailey Unit 4 - Vocabulary for Writing

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# Bailey Unit 4 - Vocabulary for Writing
#Bailey #Brick #umelbp

### Language features - 4.1 
@Bailey
| Word      | Definition                                                   |
|-----------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ambiguity | Where more than one interprestation is possible; lack of clarity |
| Anecdote  | A story told to illustrate a situation or idea               |
| Cliché    | An overused idea or phrase; lacking in freshness             |
| Euphemism | A word or phrase used to avoid naming something unpleasant directly |
| Idiom     | A phrase used in colloquial speech, the meaning of which is not obvious |
| Metaphor  | A word used to refer to something but that literally means something else |
| Paradox   | An idea that seems wrong but yet may be true                 |
| Proverb   | A traditional statement or rhyme containing advice or a moral |
| Saying    | An often-repeated comment that seems to contain some truth   |
| Simile    | A comparision of two things, using ‘like’ or ‘as’            |
| Slogan    | A frequently repeated phrase used in advertisting or politics |
| Statement | A rather formal comment on a situation                       |
| Synopsis  | A summary of something                                       |

### Nouns - 4.3 
@nouns @Bailey
(NB: not all these words have close synonyms. This list is a guide to approximate meaning. You should use a dictionary for a full understanding.)
| Noun                                                         | Example                                                      | Adjective     | Synonym                                                      |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| accuracy                                                     | Repeating the experiment will improve the **accuracy** of the results. | accurate      | precision                                                    |
| analysis                                                     | His **analysis** of the alloy showed a high percentage of copper. | analytical    | examination                                                  |
| approach                                                     | Professor Han has brought a new **approach** to the study of genetics. | approachable  | angle of study                                               |
| assessment^[asessment: an opinion or a judgement about somebody/something that has been thought about very carefully] | She failed the first module **assessment** but passed the final one. |               | test                                                         |
| assumption                                                   | He made the **assumption** that all the students sopke French. |               | informed guess                                               |
| authority^[authority: the power to give orders to people]    | Dr James is our leading **authority** on marine law.         | authoritative | expert                                                       |
| category                                                     | Her work established two **categories** of local governance^[governance(n.): the activity of governing a country or controlling a company or an organization; the way in which a country is governed or a company or institution is controlled]. |               | type                                                         |
| claim                                                        | Their **claim** that the island was first inhabited in 550 BCE is false. |               | argument/thesis                                              |
| controversy                                                  | Climate change is an issue that has caused much **controversy**. | controversial | debate                                                       |
| correlation^[correlation: a connection between two things in which one thing changes as the other does] | They found a **correlation** between height and health.      |               | link                                                         |
| deterrent                                                    | The harsh climate of the desert acted as a **deterrentt**^[deterrent(n.): something that makes somebody less likely to do something (= that deters them)] to exploration. |               | disincentive^[disincentive(n.): a thing that makes somebody less willing to do something] |
| emphasis                                                     | Their teacher put an **emphasis** on practical research.     | emphatic      | weight put on one area                                       |
| evidence                                                     | The X-ray provided **evidence** of his lung infection.       |               | proof                                                        |
| exception^[exception: a thing that does not follow a rule (= it is unusual)] | The Tesla is an **exception** to the idea of slow, small electric cars. | exceptional   | different things                                             |
| extract^[extract(n.): extract (from something) a short passage from a book, piece of music, etc. that gives you an idea of what the whole thing is like] | He read a short **extract** from his paper on Hegel to the class. |               | part of a longer work                                        |
| ideology^[ideology: a set of ideas that an economic or political system is based on] | Military power was at the heart of Roman **ideology**.       | ideological   | belief                                                       |
| implication^[implication: a possible effect or result of an action or a decision] | The **implication** of the report is that we need to do more research. |               | unstated suggestion                                          |
| innovation                                                   | Steam power was a signigicant **innovation** in the eighteenth century. | innovative    | new introduction                                             |
| intuition^[intuition: the ability to know something by using your feelings rather than considering the facts] | **Intuition** has been described as ‘a gut feeling’.         |               | understanding withought thinking                             |
| motivaton                                                    | Money is often claimed to be the primary **motivation** for most workers. | motivational  | incentive                                                    |
| perspective^[perspective: a particular attitude towards something; a way of thinking about something (synonym: viewpoint)] | Sigmund Freud’s work opened a new **perspective** on human behaviour. |               | angle of study                                               |
| phenomenon                                                   | Earthquakes are an unusual **phenomenon** in Britain.        | phenomenal    | unusual event                                                |
| policy                                                       | The university has a zero-tolerance **policy** on plagiarism. |               | formal guildelines                                           |
| preference                                                   | Her **preference** was criminal law, but other fields were more profitable. | preferential  | favourite choice                                             |
| process                                                      | The drug trials^[trial: the process of testing the ability, quality or performance of somebody/something, especially before you make a final decision about them (ex. a clinical trial)] involved a three-stage **process** that took two years. |               | series of stages                                             |
| proposal                                                     | The professor’s **proposal** for more seminars^[seminar:  class at a university or college when a small group of students and a teacher discuss or study a particular topic] was rejected. |               | suggestion                                                   |
| provision^[provision: the act of supplying somebody with something that they need or want; something that is supplied (usulally singular)] | The library has increased its **provision** of computer terminals by 100%. | provisional   | supply                                                       |
| sequence                                                     | Writing is a **sequence** of reading, note-taking, planning and drafting. | sequential    | series of stages                                             |
| strategy                                                     | Swimming every day was part of his **strategy** for getting fit. | strategic     | plan                                                         |
| substitute^[substitute: a person or thing that you use or have instead of the one you normally use or have] | To what extent can natural gas be a **substitute** for oil?  |               | replacement                                                  |
| technique                                                    | She developed a new **technique** for collecting the beetles. | technical     | method                                                       |
| validity ^[validity: the state of being legally or officially acceptable] | Events confirmed the **validity** of his prediction.         | valid         | truth                                                        |
| **Noun**                                                     | **Example**                                                  | **Adjective** | **Synonym**                                                  |

### Confusing nouns and adjectives - 4.3 
@adjectives @Bailey
| Noun          | Adjective                                                    | None                                                         | Adjective                                                    |
|---------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| approximation | approximate                                                  | particularity                                                | particular                                                   |
| superiority   | superior^[superior: better in quality than somebody/something else; greater than somebody/something else] | reason                                                       | reasonable                                                   |
| strategy      | strategic                                                    | synthesis^[synthesis: the act of combining separate ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.; a mixture or combination of ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.] | synthetic                                                    |
| politics      | political                                                    | economics/economy                                            | economic/economical^[economical: providing good service or value in relation to the amount of time or money spent] |
| industry      | industrial                                                   | culture                                                      | cultural                                                     |
| exterior      | external                                                     | average                                                      | average                                                      |
| height        | high                                                         | reliability                                                  | reliable                                                     |
| heat          | hot                                                          | strength                                                     | strong                                                       |
| confidence    | confident                                                    | truth                                                        | true                                                         |
| width         | wide                                                         | probability                                                  | probable                                                     |
| necessity     | necessary                                                    | length                                                       | long                                                         |
| danger        | dangerous                                                    | relevance                                                    | relevent                                                     |

### Similar adjectives - 4.3 
@adjectives @Bailey
* High inflation is an **economic** problem. ~(Related to the economy)~
* It is more **economical** to travel by bus than train. ~(Saving money)~
* Martin Luther King made his **historic** speech in Washington. ~(Memorable or significant)~
* Cleopatra was a **historical** character, born in 69 BCE. ~(Real person in past)~
* The **electric** guitar was developed in the 1930s. ~(Worked by electricity)~
* **Electrical** engineering was a popular course. ~(Relating to electricity)~

### Academic adjectives - 4.3 
@adjectives @Bailey
The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as ::pairs of opposites::
| Adjective                                                    | Opposite                      |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| absolute                                                     | relative                      |
| abstract                                                     | concrete                      |
| accurate                                                     | inaccurate                    |
| ambiguous^[ambiguous: not clearly stated or defined]         | unambiguous                   |
| analytic                                                     | synthetic                     |
| effective                                                    | ineffective                   |
| exclusive^[exclusive: only to be used by one particular person or group; only given to one particular person or group (ex. The hotel has exclusive access to the beach.)] | inclusive                     |
| logical                                                      | illogical                     |
| metaphorical                                                 | literal                       |
| precise                                                      | vague/approximate/rough       |
| rational^[rational: based on reason rather than emotions]    | irrational                    |
| reliable                                                     | unreliable                    |
| relevant                                                     | irrelevant                    |
| specific                                                     | non-specific                  |
| subjective^[subjective: based on your own ideas or opinions rather than facts and therefore sometimes unfair] | objective                     |
| theoretical                                                  | practical/empirical/pragmatic |
* Inflation is an **abstract** concept.
* The **metaphorical** use of the word ‘key’ is probably more common than its literal one.
* The study  of engineering is very **relevant** to architecture.
* Her paper on women in education was criticised for being too **subjective**.
* In Europe, **empirical** research began in the sixteenth century.

### Understanding main verbs - 4.4 
@verbs @Bailey
(Approximate synonyms - infinitive form)
| Verb                                                         | Synonym          | Verb                                                         | Synonym       |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|
| adapt                                                        | modify           | hold                                                         | be true       |
| arise                                                        | occur            | identify                                                     | pick out      |
| conduct                                                      | carry out        | imply^[imply: to make it seem likely that something is true or exists] | suggest       |
| characterise                                                 | have features of | interact                                                     | work together |
| clarify                                                      | explain          | manifest^[manifest something (in something) to show something clearly, especially a feeling, an attitude or a quality] | show          |
| concentrate on                                               | look at closely  | overcome                                                     | defeat        |
| be concerned with                                            | deal with        | propose                                                      | suggest       |
| demonstrate                                                  | show             | prove                                                        | turn out      |
| determine^[determine: to discover the facts about something; to calculate something exactly] | find             | recognise                                                    | accept        |
| discriminate                                                 | distinguish      | relate to                                                    | link to       |
| establish                                                    | found            | supplement^[supplement: to add something to something in order to improve it or make it more complete] | add to        |
| exhibit                                                      | show             | undergo                                                      | experience    |
| focus                                                        | look at closely  | yield^[yield: yield something to produce or provide something, for example a profit, result or crop] | produce       |
| generate                                                     | create           | —                                                            | —             |

### Using verbs of reference - 4.4 
@verbs @Bailey @reporting verbs
* To summarise another writer’s idea
	* argue, find
		* Previn **argued** that global warming was mainly caused by the solar cycle.
		* Bakewell (1992) **found** that most managers tended to use traditional terms.
* To introduce a quotation
	* observe
		* As Scott **observed**: ‘Comment is free, but facts are sacred’.
* The writer is presenting a case
	* argue that
	* claim that
	* consider that
	* hypothesise that
	* suggest that
	* believe that
	* think that
	* state that
* Describe a reaction to a previously stated position
	* accept that
	* admit that
	* agree with
	* deny that
	* doubt 
		* Handlesmith **doubts** Melville’s suggestion that eating raw eggs could be harmful.
* Other include
	* assume that = presume that^[presume: to suppose that something is true, although you do not have actual proof]
	* conclude that
	* discover that
	* explain that
	* imply that
	* indicate that^[indicate: show(to show that something is true or exists), suggest(to be a sign of something; to show that something is possible or likely), mention(to mention something, especially in an indirect way), point to, give information,show measurement]
	* maintain that^[maintain: to keep stating that something is true, even though other people do not agree or do not believe it] = insist (that)^[insist on sth/(that): to state clearly that something is true, especially when other people do not believe you]
	* reveal that
	* show that

### Further verbs of reference - 4.4
@verbs @Bailey @reporting verbs
* Followed by the pattern (somebody/thing + for + noun/gerund^[gerund: ​a noun in the form of the present participle of a verb (that is, ending in -ing) for example travelling in the sentence I preferred travelling alone.])
~NB: All except ‘commend’ have a negative meaning.~
	* blame
	* censure^[censure: strong criticism]
	* commend^[commend: to recommend somebody/something to somebody]
	* condemn^[comdemn: to say very strongly that you think something is bad, usually for moral reasons]
	* criticise
		* Lee (1998) **blamed** the media for creating uncertainty.
* Followed by (somebody/thing + as + noun/gerund)
	* assess^[assess: to make a judgement about the nature or quality of somebody/something]
	* characterise^[characterise: to describe or show the qualities of somebody/something in a particular way]
	* classify
	* define
	* describe
	* evaluate
	* identify
	* interpret^[interpret: interpret something to explain the meaning of something]
	* portray^[portray: to describe or show somebody/something in a particular way, especially when this does not give a complete or accurate impression of what they are like] = present
		* Terry **interprets** rising oil prices~as a result of~the Asian recovery.

### Expressing your voice using reporting verbs - U12
@verbs @Brick @reporting verbs
* Three major groups: 
	1. Verbs relating to research 
	2. Verbs relating to discourse
	3. Evaluative verbs
* Usually in the ~past tense~ because the research that they report is finished

1. Verbs relating to research
	* To indicate the subject or topic of the research without going into specific details
		* study, investigate, research, explore, observe
			* Bowtch (2002) **investigated** the extent of water pollution in Eastern Europe.
			* Dalton (2004) **studied** changes in urban water usage over a five-year period.
			* Koyama (2004) **observed** the effects of aquaculture on water quality over a period of ten years.
	* Used to report the findings of research
		* find, report
			* Al-Khatib (2008) **found** that aquifers are rapidly being polluted in many parts of the Gulf.
2. Verbs relating to discourse^[discourse: a long and serious treatment or discussion of a subject in speech or writing]
	* Identify what the source is doing with the information
	
| Reporting verb | Use                                                          |
|----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| state          | To present something as a fact                               |
| show           | To present something as a fact                               |
| explain        | To give details of how or why something happens              |
| argue          | To present someone’s position on an issue                    |
| claim          | To indicate that your soure has stated something as a fact   |
| point out      | To present something as a fact                               |
| reject         | To present a position that the source does not support       |
| discuss        | To indicate the issue or topic that a source examines        |
| mention        | To indicate that the source deals with an issue very briefly |
| note           | To indicate that the source deals with an issue very briefly |
| conclude       | To indicate the conclusion the source reaches                |
| suggest        | To indicate the source thinks something is possibly true     |
| propose        | To suggest a solution to a particular problem                |
| emphasise      | To indicate the source’s most important point                |
| demonstrate    | To show how or why something is the case                     |
| describe       | To outline a process or the causes and results of a process  |
3. Evaluative reporting verbs
	* Reflect your judgment of the source
	
| Reporting verb | Use                                                          |
|----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| contend        | To indicate that you disagree with your source’s position    |
| assume         | To indicate that you think that the source has treated something as factual, but you believe it is not |
| reveal         | To indicate that the information was previously hidden or not widely known |
| allege         | To indicate that you think a source makes a claim without proof |
| imply          | To indicate that the source says something indirectly        |
| exaggerate     | To indicate that the source places too much emphasis on something |

### Conjunctions - 4.5, 2.2, 2.5, 3.8
@conjunctions @Bailey
| Addition    | Result       | Reason         | Opposition   | Example                       | Time                                                  |
|-------------|--------------|----------------|--------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| moreover    | therefore    | because        | but          | such as                       | after, before                                         |
| as well as  | consequently | owing to       | yet          | e.g.                          | while                                                 |
| in addition | so           | as a result of | while        | in particular                 | then                                                  |
| and         | that is why  | as             | however      | for instance                  | next, subsequently                                    |
| also        | hence        | since          | nevertheless | particularly                  | ago                                                   |
| furthermore |              | due to         | whereas      | especially                    | by (on or before)                                     |
| plus        |              |                | albeit       | A case in point is something. | since (with present perfect, must specify start date) |
|             |              |                | although     | in other words                | until (end of a period)                               |
|             |              |                | despite      | for example                   | during                                                |
|             |              |                | In spite of  |                               | later                                                 |

### Cause and Effect - 2.2
@Bailey @conjunctions
* Focus on ~causes~
	* With verbs
		* ~The poor harvest~ **caused/led to/resulted in/produced** higher prices.
	* With conjunctions
		* **Because of/Due to/Owing to/As a result of** ~the poor harvest~ prices rose.
* Focus on ~effects~
	* With verbs (note use of passives)
		* ~The higher prices~ **were caused by/were produced by/resulted from** the poor harvest.
	* With conjunctions
		* There were ~price rises~ **due to/because of/as a result of** the poor harvest.
