# Bailey Unit 4 - Vocabulary for Writing
#Bailey #Brick #umelbp

### Language features - 4.1
@Bailey
| Word | Definition |
|-----------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| Ambiguity | Where more than one interprestation is possible; lack of clarity |
| Anecdote | A story told to illustrate a situation or idea |
| Cliché | An overused idea or phrase; lacking in freshness |
| Euphemism | A word or phrase used to avoid naming something unpleasant directly |
| Idiom | A phrase used in colloquial speech, the meaning of which is not obvious |
| Metaphor | A word used to refer to something but that literally means something else |
| Paradox | An idea that seems wrong but yet may be true |
| Proverb | A traditional statement or rhyme containing advice or a moral |
| Saying | An often-repeated comment that seems to contain some truth |
| Simile | A comparision of two things, using ‘like’ or ‘as’ |
| Slogan | A frequently repeated phrase used in advertisting or politics |
| Statement | A rather formal comment on a situation |
| Synopsis | A summary of something |

### Nouns - 4.3
@nouns @Bailey
(NB: not all these words have close synonyms. This list is a guide to approximate meaning. You should use a dictionary for a full understanding.)
| Noun | Example | Adjective | Synonym |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| accuracy | Repeating the experiment will improve the **accuracy** of the results. | accurate | precision |
| analysis | His **analysis** of the alloy showed a high percentage of copper. | analytical | examination |
| approach | Professor Han has brought a new **approach** to the study of genetics. | approachable | angle of study |
| assessment^[asessment: an opinion or a judgement about somebody/something that has been thought about very carefully] | She failed the first module **assessment** but passed the final one. | | test |
| assumption | He made the **assumption** that all the students sopke French. | | informed guess |
| authority^[authority: the power to give orders to people] | Dr James is our leading **authority** on marine law. | authoritative | expert |
| category | Her work established two **categories** of local governance^[governance(n.): the activity of governing a country or controlling a company or an organization; the way in which a country is governed or a company or institution is controlled]. | | type |
| claim | Their **claim** that the island was first inhabited in 550 BCE is false. | | argument/thesis |
| controversy | Climate change is an issue that has caused much **controversy**. | controversial | debate |
| correlation^[correlation: a connection between two things in which one thing changes as the other does] | They found a **correlation** between height and health. | | link |
| deterrent | The harsh climate of the desert acted as a **deterrentt**^[deterrent(n.): something that makes somebody less likely to do something (= that deters them)] to exploration. | | disincentive^[disincentive(n.): a thing that makes somebody less willing to do something] |
| emphasis | Their teacher put an **emphasis** on practical research. | emphatic | weight put on one area |
| evidence | The X-ray provided **evidence** of his lung infection. | | proof |
| exception^[exception: a thing that does not follow a rule (= it is unusual)] | The Tesla is an **exception** to the idea of slow, small electric cars. | exceptional | different things |
| extract^[extract(n.): extract (from something) a short passage from a book, piece of music, etc. that gives you an idea of what the whole thing is like] | He read a short **extract** from his paper on Hegel to the class. | | part of a longer work |
| ideology^[ideology: a set of ideas that an economic or political system is based on] | Military power was at the heart of Roman **ideology**. | ideological | belief |
| implication^[implication: a possible effect or result of an action or a decision] | The **implication** of the report is that we need to do more research. | | unstated suggestion |
| innovation | Steam power was a signigicant **innovation** in the eighteenth century. | innovative | new introduction |
| intuition^[intuition: the ability to know something by using your feelings rather than considering the facts] | **Intuition** has been described as ‘a gut feeling’. | | understanding withought thinking |
| motivaton | Money is often claimed to be the primary **motivation** for most workers. | motivational | incentive |
| perspective^[perspective: a particular attitude towards something; a way of thinking about something (synonym: viewpoint)] | Sigmund Freud’s work opened a new **perspective** on human behaviour. | | angle of study |
| phenomenon | Earthquakes are an unusual **phenomenon** in Britain. | phenomenal | unusual event |
| policy | The university has a zero-tolerance **policy** on plagiarism. | | formal guildelines |
| preference | Her **preference** was criminal law, but other fields were more profitable. | preferential | favourite choice |
| process | The drug trials^[trial: the process of testing the ability, quality or performance of somebody/something, especially before you make a final decision about them (ex. a clinical trial)] involved a three-stage **process** that took two years. | | series of stages |
| proposal | The professor’s **proposal** for more seminars^[seminar: class at a university or college when a small group of students and a teacher discuss or study a particular topic] was rejected. | | suggestion |
| provision^[provision: the act of supplying somebody with something that they need or want; something that is supplied (usulally singular)] | The library has increased its **provision** of computer terminals by 100%. | provisional | supply |
| sequence | Writing is a **sequence** of reading, note-taking, planning and drafting. | sequential | series of stages |
| strategy | Swimming every day was part of his **strategy** for getting fit. | strategic | plan |
| substitute^[substitute: a person or thing that you use or have instead of the one you normally use or have] | To what extent can natural gas be a **substitute** for oil? | | replacement |
| technique | She developed a new **technique** for collecting the beetles. | technical | method |
| validity ^[validity: the state of being legally or officially acceptable] | Events confirmed the **validity** of his prediction. | valid | truth |
| **Noun** | **Example** | **Adjective** | **Synonym** |

### Confusing nouns and adjectives - 4.3
@adjectives @Bailey
| Noun | Adjective | None | Adjective |
|---------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| approximation | approximate | particularity | particular |
| superiority | superior^[superior: better in quality than somebody/something else; greater than somebody/something else] | reason | reasonable |
| strategy | strategic | synthesis^[synthesis: the act of combining separate ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.; a mixture or combination of ideas, beliefs, styles, etc.] | synthetic |
| politics | political | economics/economy | economic/economical^[economical: providing good service or value in relation to the amount of time or money spent] |
| industry | industrial | culture | cultural |
| exterior | external | average | average |
| height | high | reliability | reliable |
| heat | hot | strength | strong |
| confidence | confident | truth | true |
| width | wide | probability | probable |
| necessity | necessary | length | long |
| danger | dangerous | relevance | relevent |

### Similar adjectives - 4.3
@adjectives @Bailey
* High inflation is an **economic** problem. ~(Related to the economy)~
* It is more **economical** to travel by bus than train. ~(Saving money)~
* Martin Luther King made his **historic** speech in Washington. ~(Memorable or significant)~
* Cleopatra was a **historical** character, born in 69 BCE. ~(Real person in past)~
* The **electric** guitar was developed in the 1930s. ~(Worked by electricity)~
* **Electrical** engineering was a popular course. ~(Relating to electricity)~

### Academic adjectives - 4.3
@adjectives @Bailey
The following adjectives are best understood and learnt as ::pairs of opposites::
| Adjective | Opposite |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| absolute | relative |
| abstract | concrete |
| accurate | inaccurate |
| ambiguous^[ambiguous: not clearly stated or defined] | unambiguous |
| analytic | synthetic |
| effective | ineffective |
| exclusive^[exclusive: only to be used by one particular person or group; only given to one particular person or group (ex. The hotel has exclusive access to the beach.)] | inclusive |
| logical | illogical |
| metaphorical | literal |
| precise | vague/approximate/rough |
| rational^[rational: based on reason rather than emotions] | irrational |
| reliable | unreliable |
| relevant | irrelevant |
| specific | non-specific |
| subjective^[subjective: based on your own ideas or opinions rather than facts and therefore sometimes unfair] | objective |
| theoretical | practical/empirical/pragmatic |
* Inflation is an **abstract** concept.
* The **metaphorical** use of the word ‘key’ is probably more common than its literal one.
* The study of engineering is very **relevant** to architecture.
* Her paper on women in education was criticised for being too **subjective**.
* In Europe, **empirical** research began in the sixteenth century.

### Understanding main verbs - 4.4
@verbs @Bailey
(Approximate synonyms - infinitive form)
| Verb | Synonym | Verb | Synonym |
|--------------------------------------------------------------|------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|---------------|
| adapt | modify | hold | be true |
| arise | occur | identify | pick out |
| conduct | carry out | imply^[imply: to make it seem likely that something is true or exists] | suggest |
| characterise | have features of | interact | work together |
| clarify | explain | manifest^[manifest something (in something) to show something clearly, especially a feeling, an attitude or a quality] | show |
| concentrate on | look at closely | overcome | defeat |
| be concerned with | deal with | propose | suggest |
| demonstrate | show | prove | turn out |
| determine^[determine: to discover the facts about something; to calculate something exactly] | find | recognise | accept |
| discriminate | distinguish | relate to | link to |
| establish | found | supplement^[supplement: to add something to something in order to improve it or make it more complete] | add to |
| exhibit | show | undergo | experience |
| focus | look at closely | yield^[yield: yield something to produce or provide something, for example a profit, result or crop] | produce |
| generate | create | — | — |

### Using verbs of reference - 4.4
@verbs @Bailey @reporting verbs
* To summarise another writer’s idea
* argue, find
* Previn **argued** that global warming was mainly caused by the solar cycle.
* Bakewell (1992) **found** that most managers tended to use traditional terms.
* To introduce a quotation
* observe
* As Scott **observed**: ‘Comment is free, but facts are sacred’.
* The writer is presenting a case
* argue that
* claim that
* consider that
* hypothesise that
* suggest that
* believe that
* think that
* state that
* Describe a reaction to a previously stated position
* accept that
* admit that
* agree with
* deny that
* doubt
* Handlesmith **doubts** Melville’s suggestion that eating raw eggs could be harmful.
* Other include
* assume that = presume that^[presume: to suppose that something is true, although you do not have actual proof]
* conclude that
* discover that
* explain that
* imply that
* indicate that^[indicate: show(to show that something is true or exists), suggest(to be a sign of something; to show that something is possible or likely), mention(to mention something, especially in an indirect way), point to, give information,show measurement]
* maintain that^[maintain: to keep stating that something is true, even though other people do not agree or do not believe it] = insist (that)^[insist on sth/(that): to state clearly that something is true, especially when other people do not believe you]
* reveal that
* show that

### Further verbs of reference - 4.4
@verbs @Bailey @reporting verbs
* Followed by the pattern (somebody/thing + for + noun/gerund^[gerund: ​a noun in the form of the present participle of a verb (that is, ending in -ing) for example travelling in the sentence I preferred travelling alone.])
~NB: All except ‘commend’ have a negative meaning.~
* blame
* censure^[censure: strong criticism]
* commend^[commend: to recommend somebody/something to somebody]
* condemn^[comdemn: to say very strongly that you think something is bad, usually for moral reasons]
* criticise
* Lee (1998) **blamed** the media for creating uncertainty.
* Followed by (somebody/thing + as + noun/gerund)
* assess^[assess: to make a judgement about the nature or quality of somebody/something]
* characterise^[characterise: to describe or show the qualities of somebody/something in a particular way]
* classify
* define
* describe
* evaluate
* identify
* interpret^[interpret: interpret something to explain the meaning of something]
* portray^[portray: to describe or show somebody/something in a particular way, especially when this does not give a complete or accurate impression of what they are like] = present
* Terry **interprets** rising oil prices~as a result of~the Asian recovery.

### Expressing your voice using reporting verbs - U12
@verbs @Brick @reporting verbs
* Three major groups:
1. Verbs relating to research
2. Verbs relating to discourse
3. Evaluative verbs
* Usually in the ~past tense~ because the research that they report is finished

1. Verbs relating to research
* To indicate the subject or topic of the research without going into specific details
* study, investigate, research, explore, observe
* Bowtch (2002) **investigated** the extent of water pollution in Eastern Europe.
* Dalton (2004) **studied** changes in urban water usage over a five-year period.
* Koyama (2004) **observed** the effects of aquaculture on water quality over a period of ten years.
* Used to report the findings of research
* find, report
* Al-Khatib (2008) **found** that aquifers are rapidly being polluted in many parts of the Gulf.
2. Verbs relating to discourse^[discourse: a long and serious treatment or discussion of a subject in speech or writing]
* Identify what the source is doing with the information

| Reporting verb | Use |
|----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| state | To present something as a fact |
| show | To present something as a fact |
| explain | To give details of how or why something happens |
| argue | To present someone’s position on an issue |
| claim | To indicate that your soure has stated something as a fact |
| point out | To present something as a fact |
| reject | To present a position that the source does not support |
| discuss | To indicate the issue or topic that a source examines |
| mention | To indicate that the source deals with an issue very briefly |
| note | To indicate that the source deals with an issue very briefly |
| conclude | To indicate the conclusion the source reaches |
| suggest | To indicate the source thinks something is possibly true |
| propose | To suggest a solution to a particular problem |
| emphasise | To indicate the source’s most important point |
| demonstrate | To show how or why something is the case |
| describe | To outline a process or the causes and results of a process |
3. Evaluative reporting verbs
* Reflect your judgment of the source

| Reporting verb | Use |
|----------------|--------------------------------------------------------------|
| contend | To indicate that you disagree with your source’s position |
| assume | To indicate that you think that the source has treated something as factual, but you believe it is not |
| reveal | To indicate that the information was previously hidden or not widely known |
| allege | To indicate that you think a source makes a claim without proof |
| imply | To indicate that the source says something indirectly |
| exaggerate | To indicate that the source places too much emphasis on something |

### Conjunctions - 4.5, 2.2, 2.5, 3.8
@conjunctions @Bailey
| Addition | Result | Reason | Opposition | Example | Time |
|-------------|--------------|----------------|--------------|-------------------------------|-------------------------------------------------------|
| moreover | therefore | because | but | such as | after, before |
| as well as | consequently | owing to | yet | e.g. | while |
| in addition | so | as a result of | while | in particular | then |
| and | that is why | as | however | for instance | next, subsequently |
| also | hence | since | nevertheless | particularly | ago |
| furthermore | | due to | whereas | especially | by (on or before) |
| plus | | | albeit | A case in point is something. | since (with present perfect, must specify start date) |
| | | | although | in other words | until (end of a period) |
| | | | despite | for example | during |
| | | | In spite of | | later |

### Cause and Effect - 2.2
@Bailey @conjunctions
* Focus on ~causes~
* With verbs
* ~The poor harvest~ **caused/led to/resulted in/produced** higher prices.
* With conjunctions
* **Because of/Due to/Owing to/As a result of** ~the poor harvest~ prices rose.
* Focus on ~effects~
* With verbs (note use of passives)
* ~The higher prices~ **were caused by/were produced by/resulted from** the poor harvest.
* With conjunctions
* There were ~price rises~ **due to/because of/as a result of** the poor harvest.