--- markdown_extensions: - toc: depth_from: 1 depth_to: 6 title: 國考 --- <style type="html/css"> img { transition: -webkit-transform 0.25s ease; transition: transform 0.25s ease; } img:hover { -webkit-transform: scale(2); transform: scale(2); padding-left:140px; } </style> <head> <script src="https://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/3.5.1/jquery.min.js"></script> <script src="https://maxcdn.bootstrapcdn.com/bootstrap/3.4.1/js/bootstrap.min.js"></script> </head> <body> ## Introduction <div class="container"> <h2 type="button" class="btn btn-info" data-toggle="collapse" data-target="#demo">心得 - 內有連結</h2> <div id="demo" class="collapse" style="width:100%;"> ### 搜尋google 醫學口訣大亂鬥 <keyword> site:https://www.facebook.com/medfunlearning ### 我覺得有效的書(預估一刷需要時間,1w大約等於一週的早上、下午或晚上其中一個時段,所以1w實際大約24小時) * 解剖:請參閱雲端資料 (4w, 24影片一天一部) * 生化:Winner(1.5w) * 生理:FC(2w) * 微免:FC * 寄蟲 1w * 免疫 1w * 細菌 0.5w * 病毒 0.5w * 生統流病:FC (2d) * 藥理:FC (3w) 能記多少算多少,常常會有卡住讀很慢的地方,標示起來就繼續,之後多看幾次ㄅ * 病理:放,靠台大紮實的區段記憶還算可以 :::info Indication: 前測不超過120的人,跟我一樣讀四五遍還是會忘記東西,平時在校成績中間的。 原則:FC一刷題目一定都要做且標出重點,開始準備時我有點畏懼寫題,後來還是要重讀補寫,不如一開始就紮實做。**國考不求記的多,只求背過得不要忘**。 以下我讀書的順序,解剖是升上大四的暑假看趙俊彥的影片,微免的兩本FC從考前那個延後開學的寒假開始慢慢讀,生理是在學期中找有空的時間總共花兩週左右的時間複習完FC。其他科目開始dedicated是從國考前五個禮拜(開始放假),花了兩週每天上午讀生化的winner配查到的醫學口訣大亂鬥的口訣,下午讀藥理的表格,晚上刷老趙的題目,偶爾把沒讀完的微免拿起來讀。後來我發現藥理的表格啃起來過硬換讀FC,開篇自主神經藥物還是過硬讓我打退堂鼓,開始看藥訣8.00,才豁然開朗一點。至於解剖我個人不推薦沒有二刷過老趙圖譜(任何照著老趙的邏輯脈落畫成的都可)就寫題目,進度會非常緩慢,我是一直查大Gray's整理成這個網頁。我的經驗建議是寫老趙題庫之前二刷解剖搭配Anatomy_Imaging.apkg&100 concepts的牌組,前者是Netter字卡圖譜做成,後者是美國醫師國考網路上流傳的神秘資源做成的重點中的重點。 **增強了記憶再來刷題,不然多刷也只是拖慢進度,枉然**。 放假一週後寫了1082前測,分數過低大約100,但是還是繼續努力一刷。除了藥理病理,其他都一刷的時候開始寫其他份考古題。我有把每年錯題分佈化成圖,這樣有助分析哪些科目的錯題率高於其他科目或是有浮動。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/gbUi76p.png) 寫題目我是從後往前寫,最後考前一週寫1091做後側。圖中其實可以發現生化前測的時候我完全還沒把winner看一半,後來看完至少錯題降到20%;解剖二刷PEGGY學姐的手繪圖之後順利把錯題壓下來,雖然1061還是突變。我其實目標就是把解剖、生理、生化、微免、藥理盡量壓在40趴就好了。但是每年都還是會有一科莫名其妙爆掉。直到1091後測還因為病理錯爆差4分。放假後吃家聚的時候學長跟我說國考出題很厲害,不管你覺得自己這次模擬考寫的多好,最後出來的分數都會差不多。真的是滿厲害的,不管我怎麼衝,最多也提高不到10分。 二刷的時候我重點放在解剖,畢竟是很久之前就看完的老趙影片,這時候在網路上找到別人做的anki deck,鬼神一般把趙俊彥的內容重點都收錄了,總共1500多張卡,如果每天新卡片100張的話,需要兩週的時間刷完,缺點就是圖少,但是讀完陽明學姐的圖譜刷個anki,順便把複習卡mature,那個時候我才有終於了解老趙在說什麼的感覺,那時已經是考前8天喔。 藥理部份二三四刷,我的重點放在國防的國考藥訣,每個藥名跟藥物**適應症**、種類要能連結起來,**紅字**標起來的**副作用**、考點跟**粗體字**都努力把他們跟藥名連起來。我盡量都反過來背,畢竟考試的選項都是要你選藥名,只要能看出來哪些藥物屬於差不多的刪掉,哪個藥物不是題目問的適應症或沒有題目的副作用也刪掉;或是你看到關鍵字就能屌選藥名,那就更好不過了。 考試的那個早上我七點起床吃早餐配winner生化,把全部畫重點的地方再看一次才出發去考場,搭車的時候再翻一次皮卡丘解剖圖譜,結果考出了幾題早上才看過的生化還是給他忘記了,不過解剖多抓了兩三題。 總之,這是篇不太具有引導功能的心得,但是我附的資源都不錯啦,是我的智商辜負了教育ㄎ。雲端上的資料如果有不能放的,請告訴我我把他下架。 <!---![](https://i.imgur.com/cvBhYbI.png)---> 回來之後亂寫,醫學一硬生生多了8分,考試的時候看來運氣不夠。 ::: ### <a href="https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1oCYHohTE2B7cEuIX3syoD-vULJdqGIWl?usp=sharing">雲端資料</a> #### 各推一個檔案 * 解剖:「考前兩週」裡新版老趙陽明學姊筆記2,我加了目錄 * 生化:陽明生化速成 * 病理:病理筆記 (by TMU方學長) * 藥理:藥理口訣8.00(但不要有些就是要很煩); 國考藥訣v1.5(藥訣8.0先快速看完有概念再讀) * 細菌:FC細菌全展開 (by NTU105張凱傑) #### 分科資源 * 解剖 * 「俊彥-*」:截圖老趙的影片並有註解 #### Anki * [解說](https://docs.google.com/document/d/1_NBKjp7XEnK-fyrggxSnVaTferanKdoF-LU8ScZjF9o/edit?usp=sharing) * 推薦decks * 解剖:懶人解剖v2.apkg (老趙全部,我勘了一點誤加了一點圖), Anatomy_Imaging.apkg (Netter flashcard) * 微免:國考一階微免.apkg * 藥理:國考一階藥理.apkg 我覺得做的有點爛,看表格吸收跟複習比較快 ### 行動考古 #### 考古豹 建議用messenger,錯題有紀錄不像網頁版。如果你像我一樣常常不在定點讀書,或是覺得老趙題庫太大一本不想拿出門,或是覺得寫了考古還是不太確定記不記得應該選的答案,可以用用。我是通常拿來寫模擬考以外的年份的解剖、藥理,都是多看一個是一個的科目。 :::info 優點: 1. 可以自訂科目 2. messenger版查起錯過得題目比較方便 缺點: 1. 不久遠於101年 ::: ![](https://i.imgur.com/OoDsKSI.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/4QhelRL.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/Mg7olNz.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/5P8Idk8.png) #### [twmlestep2](https://twmlestep2.appspot.com/) :::info 優點: 1. 有題庫關鍵字查詢、交叉查詢 2. 題目收錄多,最遠至91年 3. 像anki一樣,錯過得題目他會排程讓你重新遇到,簡直把考古當anki刷。 缺點: 1. 界面比較醜 2. 不能自訂科目、單一年份 ::: ![](https://i.imgur.com/nuuKKyR.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/USFXTCq.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/eerc4Lk.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/c3Q56Xd.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/PcIbWV7.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/ULrvmIP.png) :::warning 科目 ::: ![](https://i.imgur.com/8x3k3qk.png) :::warning filter,但不包含醫學一 ::: ![](https://i.imgur.com/9lPaf0z.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/PFzxtJz.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/nhdnuQJ.png) :::warning 交叉查詢功能及站內搜尋國考題 ::: </div> </div> </p> ## 解剖學 ### 神經 #### HIVD * ![](https://i.imgur.com/PoNBbG8.png) #### Limbic system * ![](https://i.imgur.com/xsoTkvg.jpg) * 旁海馬回=內嗅皮質(entorhinal cortex) * **前**交接、穹隆**腳**、穹隆**體** * Papez: 旁邊有個海咪咪,就起丘了,所以要把皮帶扣好 * Stria terminalis: 杏仁核 ←→ 中膈核 #### 丘腦 * Stria medullaris: 杏仁核 ←→ 韁繩核 * 行為動機&成癮 #### 下視丘 * 視前核:GnRH、副交感散熱 * 旁室核:OT, TRH, CRH * 視交叉上核:ADH, SS * 弓核:GHRH, PIH :::info 錢真富旁被毆到送CT,上阿斯,攻擊屁股 錢真富:前Gn副交感 旁毆CT:旁OT, CRH, TRH 上阿斯:上ADH, SS 攻擊屁:弓GHRH, PIH ::: #### Broca's vs. Wernick's * Wernick's: 語言理解 22 * Broca's: 語言表達 44/45 * 弓形束連接Wernick/Broca #### Brainstem function test * Oculo-cephalic: 8 => 3, 6 * Corneal reflex: 5 => 7 #### 腦中風 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/R0J4q19.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/o9VMNUc.jpg) #### Parkinson's disease * ![](https://i.imgur.com/GH0rukY.jpg) * LGP=GPe * MGP=GPi * SN(總促) * STR對Thalamus經GPe(本抑): -; -,-,+,- * STR對Thalamus經GPi(本促): +; -,- #### Brachial plexus 臂神經叢大集合 1. 排順序:「Robert Teller Drinks Cold Bear」:根(Root)→幹(Trunk)→部(Division)→索(Cord)→分支(Branch) ![](https://i.imgur.com/giYCVVU.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/ETHNuQf.png) :::info 常被姦 上幹下鎖內外胸背都吃 根:長胸、背肩胛骨 幹:上肩胛 索:下肩胛、內外胸、胸背 ::: 2. 根、幹分支: 「長兄被姦,甲上」─照分出順序是長胸神經、背肩胛神經、肩胛上神經,前兩個是在根就分支,肩胛上神經是在上幹分支 3. 後索分支: 「STAR」─肩胛下神經(Subscapular, upper and lower)、胸背神經(Thoracodorsal)、腋神經(Axillary)、橈神經(Radial) 4. 外索分支: 「Lucy Loves Me」─ 外胸神經(Lateral pectoral)、正中神經外側束(lateral root of the median nerve)、肌皮神經(Musculocutaneous) 5. 內索分支: 「Unions of 4 Medians」─尺神經(Ulnar)、內側上臂皮神經(Medial cutaneous nerve of arm)、內側前臂皮神經(Medial cutaneous nerve of forearm)、內胸神經(Medial pectoral)、正中神經內側束(Medial root of median nerve) #### 肌肉神經支配 ##### 手 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/eXI82LL.png) * Median nerve * Forearm: all flexors (anterior compartment) except for those supplied by the ulnar nerve * Hand: thenar muscles and lateral two lumbricals of the hand ##### Deformity (claw, pope, benediction[ape]) ![](https://i.imgur.com/VqvYdzP.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/jyVLTfC.png) ##### 下肢 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/vMY8FND.jpg) #### 小腿腓神經 * 總腓神經 (common fibular nerve) → 外側表淺內側深 * 從後外繞到前面分支 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/fb8ZqWm.jpg) ##### 軟腭 * Vagus: uvular muscle, levator veli palatini, palatoglossus, palatopharyngeus * V3: tensor veli palatini (腭帆張肌) #### 脊髓小腦徑 [reference] 長庚王乃廣 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/X4vRwnn.png) #### 小腦腳 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/EigiKi0.jpg) * input * ![](https://i.imgur.com/MrirqAf.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/UmPCRv9.png) * PROAVC * pontine * reticular * \--------- * olivary * arcuate * vestibular * cuneate :::success External cuneate nucleus ::: * output * ![](https://i.imgur.com/XqA1jXH.png) * dentate, enboliform, RV * thalamus * red nucleus * \---------- * reticular * vestibular #### Cerebellopontine angle syndrome。 通常是有 tumor 長在附近,壓迫到小腦橋腦角,可能影響到 **CN5、CN7、CN8**, 導致聽力喪失、耳鳴、失去平衡、說話障礙、失去角膜反射...等症狀 #### 腦神經(運動感覺) ||Function|CN| |---|----|----| |GSA| Pain, temperature, touch, proprioception | 5 (V3:2/3), 7, 9 (1/3), 10| |GSE |Motor to skeletal muscle of the eye and tongue| 3, 4, 6, 12| |GVA| Sensory from visceral organs |7, 9, 10| |GVE| Autonomic motor fibers (ANS) to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands| 3, 7, 9, 10| |SSA| Vision, hearing, equilibrium |2, 8| |SVA| Smell and taste |1, 7 *(2/3, chorda tympani)*, 9 *(1/3)*, 10 *(epiglottis)*| |SVE or branchial efferent |Motor to skeletal muscles for mastication, facial expression, movement of the pharynx and larynx| 5, 7, 9, 10, 11 (SVE, GSE, or mixed)| :::info 先背SSA、SVA,再背GSA、GVA(看圖) GVE就是自律神經系統37910 GSE眼舌運動 ::: ![](https://i.imgur.com/Ho1754R.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/gzpu99L.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/RlbYCc2.jpg) #### Extraocular muscle * SR 10 | 10 SR * IR SO | SO IR * **1010 soso** #### Corneal reflex 角膜反射 * V1進 7出 * orbicularis oculi 眼輪匝肌 #### 聽覺pathway: 上外下內 “上”橄欖核 外側蹄系 “下”丘 “內”膝體 大腦(area 41/42) #### 聽覺 * Ascending auditory pathway: * **Superior olivary nucleus** 會接受來自**ventral cochlear nucleus**的訊息(大多數來自對側),也會接受來自對側 superior olivary nucleus 的訊息(ventral cochlear nucleus 和來自對側 superior olivary nucleus 要匯入 superior olivary nuclues 所形成的 fiber 即稱為 **trapezoid body**),之後再形成 **lateral lemniscus** 投射到 **inferior colliculus**,所有向上的 auditory pathway 都會經過inferior colliculus。 * 注意:dorsal cochlear nucleus 和 trapezoid body的形成並無關連,形成 nucleus 後將直接通往 inferior colliculus,勿搞混! * Descending auditory pathway: * 與 superior olivary nucleus 相關者為 olivocochlear efferent fiber,會支配同側 inner hair cell、兩側outer hair cell,可調整 tectorial membrane 震動的幅度。 * 另外,superior olivary nucleus 主要負責 middle ear reflex 及聲音的定位。Middle ear reflex 中,superior olivary nucleus 會投射至 facial motor nucleus(影響 stapedius m.)和 trigeminal motor nucleus(影響 tensor tympani m.),降低過大音量的聲音對耳朵的傷害。 * 比較:acoustic startle reflex(聽到聲音會轉頭)則主要是由 inferior colliculus主導。 #### Lateral vs. anterior corticospinal tract ![](https://i.imgur.com/TWZqnJZ.png) * distal (laterlal) * proximal (anterior) #### CN5 trigeminal 三叉 ![](https://i.imgur.com/DVtj1qF.png) #### CN7 & Parotid gland * 穿出stylomastoid foramen走在parotid gland下方 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/Dimq9Jg.jpg) * 分出五支 * temporal * zygomatic * buccal * marginal mandibular * cervical #### 自主神經節 ##### 交感神經:脊椎旁 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/GxLnDR1.png) * 交感節後: * 上頸神經節 - **長睫神經、深岩神經** * 瞳孔輻射肌、上眼瞼肌 * 中頸 * 下頸 ##### 交感神經:脊椎前 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/HIFcdsq.png) * 交感節前: * **大內臟神經** - 腎上腺髓質、腔、上腸繫膜、腎神經節 * **小內臟神經** - 上腸繫膜神經節 * **最下內臟神經** - 腎神經節 * **腰內臟神經** - 下腸繫膜、上腹下神經節 * 交感節後: * 上腹下神經節 - **腹下神經、薦內臟神經(?)** * ![](https://i.imgur.com/WYZrrkx.jpg) ##### 副交感神經 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/3HER5MR.jpg) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/FS1sAs3.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/Zl8vIs5.png) * 副交感節前: * Edinger-Westphal - **CN3** * 淚核 - **CN7、大岩神經、翼管神經** * 上涎核 - **CN7、鼓索(鼓室)神經、舌神經** * 下涎核 - **CN9、鼓神經、小岩神經** * 背核 - **CN10** * S2~S4 - **骨盆內臟神經** * 副交感節後: * 睫狀神經節 - **短睫神經** * 睫狀肌(看近、*accomodation reflex*)、瞳孔括約肌(*pupillary light reflex*) * 翼顎神經節 - **大顎神經、上頜神經** * 顴神經、顴顳神經、淚神經:淚腺 * 鼻神經:鼻腺 * 頷下神經節 * 頷下腺、舌下腺 * 耳神經節 - **耳顳神經** * Parotid gland: CN9 → 小岩神經 → 耳神經節 → 耳顳神經(CN V3) * Auerbach, Meissner - 前中(背核)後(S2~S4)腸 * 下腹下神經節 * 終末神經節 (背核、S2-4) * 卵巢、輸卵管、輸尿管 #### 前中後腸神經支配 ||前|中|後| |---|---|---|---| |副交感|迷走|迷走|pelvic splanchnic nerve, S2-S4| |交感|大內臟(T5-9)→CG|小內臟(T10-11)→SMG|腰內臟(L1-2)→IMG| #### 脊髓 spinal cord * ![](https://i.imgur.com/zXBXnI2.png) #### 視網膜 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/3bPsmn9.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/9GOoqNk.png) * 上圖中 H:horizontal cell;B:bipolar cell;A:amacrine cell;M:muller cell; G:ganglion cells ### 血管循環 [主要動脈]趙6-6 #### Willis circle ![](https://i.imgur.com/RnBzigR.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/oxWcfhk.jpg) #### Kisselbach plexus * 流鼻血 * 上唇 * 前篩 * 後篩 * 翼顎動脈 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/6eKkOBO.jpg) #### 頸動脈 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/ect1oED.png) * 外頸動脈 * 甲狀腺上 * 舌、顏面 * 上頜 * 耳後、枕 * 升咽 * 甲射顏面上,錢後枕菸 → 甲狀腺上/ 舌/ 顏面/ 上頷/ 淺顳/ 耳後/ 枕/ 升咽 * 內頸 * 眼 * 前中賣 後交眼線 [reference] YMU 曾宇璿 這是一個警察緝毒的故事,兩名員警臥底準備攻破毒窩,三人小組中,前兩人負責去假裝做交易,後面的蒐證事情交給眼線 前大腦、中大腦、前脈絡叢、後交通、眼動脈、腦下垂體動脈 #### 鎖骨下動脈 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/Q2v3io9.jpg) * 甲狀腺頸幹、肋頸幹 * 內胸動脈 * 腋下-----------------肱動脈 * 上胸、胸肩峰 * 側胸 * 肩胛下 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/iQ6Kfk7.jpg) 1. 鎖骨下動脈分支 椎 內胸 夾警,樂警,被姦 (甲頸)(肋頸)(背肩) 椎子奶女子用內胸夾警察,開心的警察就被姦了XD 2. 甲頸分支 下很緊 甲上 (下甲狀腺)(橫頸)(肩胛上) 被夾緊的警察對她說下面很緊有甲上的程度唷 3. 肋頸分支 樂警升上天 (頸深) (上肋間) #### Femoral吻合 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/En7fk37.png) * 內外旋股動脈: 深股動脈分支 #### Foot * Two pulses are commonly taken on the distal lower limb. * The posterior tibial pulse is felt between the medial malleolus and the calcaneal tendon. * The dorsalis pedis artery is a continuation of the anterior tibial artery and its pulse may be palpated on the dorsum of the foot just lateral to the tendon of the extensor hallucis longus as it emerges from the extensor retinaculum. #### 小腿 | | 前腔室 | 側腔室 | 後腔室 | | --- | -------- | -------- | -------- | | 動脈 | 前脛動脈 | 腓動脈 | 後脛動脈 | | 神經 | 深腓神經 | 淺腓神經 | 脛神經 | * ![](https://i.imgur.com/OYfQJ0r.jpg) * Popliteal artery分出anterior/posterior tibial artery * Fibular artery 腓動脈是posterior tibial artery的分支 #### 腹部靜脈 * inguinal → 上腹壁靜脈 superior epigastric vein * 側胸靜脈 lateral thoracic vein → 腋下靜脈 axillary vein * 下腹壁靜脈 ←→ 上腹壁靜脈 → 內胸靜脈 internal thoracic artery #### Mesentery * 橫結腸 * 乙狀結腸 #### Hepatoduodenal ligament * 門靜脈 portal vein, * 總膽管 common bile duct, and * proper hepatic artery #### Portosystemic anatomosis 門靜脈體循環吻合 門脈 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/cXodUPf.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/OpjKqEF.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/KybhXpz.png) :::info IMV匯入splenic v. 胰臟:頭注入上下胰十二指腸動靜脈、體尾注入脾動靜脈 ::: * ![](https://i.imgur.com/0ihgBOl.png) #### 脾臟韌帶中的血管 ##### Splenorenal ligament * splenic vessels * 胰臟尾 ##### Gastrosplenic ligament * 短胃動靜脈 short gastric vessels #### 左右腎靜脈 * 左睪丸靜脈回腎靜脈、右睪丸靜脈直接回IVC * 左邊比較容易varicocele #### Internal iliac artery ![](https://i.imgur.com/ifXCI28.jpg) * Anterior: * 內陰部 * 下直腸 * 會陰 * 後陰囊 * 背陰莖 * 深陰莖 * 陰莖球動脈 * 中直腸 * 下膀胱=陰道 (vaginal artery) * 臍動脈 * 上膀胱 * 輸精管=子宮 (uterine artery) * 閉鎖動脈 * 下臀動脈 * Posterior: * 外側薦 * 髂腰 * 上臀 #### Direct vs. indirect hernia ![](https://i.imgur.com/VCFxlIh.jpg) * Indirect inguinal hernias (75% of inguinal hernias) occur **lateral** to the **inferior epigastric vessels**, pass through the deep inguinal ring and inguinal canal, and are enclosed within the internal spermatic fascia of the spermatic cord. * Direct inguinal hernias occur **medial** to the inferior epigastric vessels (Hasselbach's triangle), pass through the posterior wall of the inguinal canal, and are separate from the spermatic cord. #### Femoral hernia * Saphenous hiatus (在femoral NAV內側) #### 直腸血管 ||動脈|靜脈| |---|---|---| |Pectinate line以上|SMA|IMV| |以下|IMA|internal pudendal vein → internal iliac vein → common iliac vein → IVC| #### Sinus ![](https://i.imgur.com/fOW0JWH.png) :::info 上下矢直乙橫匯集 ::: * 橫竇(transverse sinus)有上岩竇(superior petrosal sinus)、下大腦靜脈(inf. cerebral v.)和小腦靜脈(cerebellar v.)注入 * 海綿竇(cavernous sinus) 經上岩竇(sup. petrosal sinus)注入橫竇 經下岩竇(inf. petrosal sinus)注入內頸靜脈 經眼靜脈(ophthalmic v)與顱外顏面靜脈(facial v)互通 ### 結締組織 #### Greater omentum * A component of visceral peritoneum that extends from the **greater curvature** of the stomach to cover the intestines. * Contains the * **gastrosplenic ligament**, * **gastrophrenic ligament**, and * **gastrocolic ligament.** #### Lesser omentum * A fold of peritoneum that extends from the **lesser curvature** of the stomach to the liver. * Contains the **gastrohepatic** and **hepatoduodenal ligaments**. * ![](https://i.imgur.com/DqiEH21.png) #### Spermatic cord * As the cord passes through the canal, it becomes wrapped in a spermatic fascial layer derived from the anterior abdominal wall. * The external layer comes from the aponeurosis of the **external abdominal oblique** muscle; * the middle layer (cremasteric fascia), from the **internal abdominal oblique** muscle; * and the internal layer, from the **transversalis fascia**. #### Ureter輸尿管走向 * 走在testicular artery睪丸動脈、ductus deferens輸精管後下方 * 壓過iliac vessels * ![](https://i.imgur.com/mywzJOg.jpg) #### 軟骨 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/JLxOvW2.png) ### 肌肉 #### 喉內在肌 * 環甲:緊 (上喉神經 [X]) * 側環杓:關 (反喉神經 [X]) * 後環杓:開 (反喉神經 [X]) * 甲杓:鬆 (反喉神經 [X]) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/5gtyXR3.png) #### 腳掌-flexor retinaculum * ![](https://i.imgur.com/DlCm9IB.png) * 前到後: * 後脛肌 * 屈指長肌 * 後脛動靜脈 * 屈拇長肌 #### rectus abdominis * Above the arcuate line, * the anterior layer of the rectus sheath comprises the fused aponeuroses of the external and internal abdominal oblique muscles, * whereas the posterior layer comprises the fused aponeuroses of the internal abdominal oblique and the transversus abdominis muscles. * Below the arcuate line, * the aponeuroses of all 3 muscles fuse to form the anterior layer of the sheath, * and the rectus abdominis muscle rests only on the thin transversalis fascia. #### 背部肌肉 * 外到內: * Iliocostalis * Longissimus * Spinalis ### 骨骼 #### 顱骨裂 (前中後顱窩) * 篩視 框圓卵棘破動 聽靜舌 #### 掌骨 * 外到內、近到遠 * 舟月三角豆 * 大小頭勾 #### 腓骨&脛骨 * 外腓內脛 #### 大腿骨 * 轉子 * Greater trochanter: gluteal muscles (abductor of thigh)附著點 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/GUP7HU2.jpg) * Lesser trochanter: iliopsoas tendon (flexor of thigh)附著點 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/jsfPs57.png) #### Greater sciatic foramen * A foramen in the posterior part of pelvis that is bounded anterolaterally by the greater sciatic notch of the ilium, posteromedially by the sacrotuberous ligament, inferiorly by the sacrospinous ligament and superiorly by the sacroiliac ligament. * Contains the * <a style="color:orange">piriformis muscle, </a> * <a style="color:red">internal pudendal vessels, * superior and inferior gluteal vessels, </a> * <a style="color:brown">superior and inferior gluteal nerves, * pudendal nerve, * sciatic nerve, * posterior femoral cutaneous nerve, * the nerve to obturator internus, and * the nerve to quadratus femoris.</a> ### 排列、口訣 #### Spinal cord - ascending pathway * posterior column & anterolateral pathway * Rexed lamina II: substantia gelatinosa: 觸壓溫痛(全身高度) * Rexed lamina III/IV: nucleus proprius: 本體感覺輕觸覺(全身高度) :::info 前側後:觸壓、溫痛、本體感覺輕觸覺振動 ::: #### Popliteal fossa ![](https://i.imgur.com/Altm25h.jpg) #### Femoral region * NAVeL (N在femoral sheath外) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/Ikj81kR.jpg) #### 橫隔膜裂孔 | T8 | T10 | T12 | | -------- | -------- | -------- | | IVC、右膈神經 | 食道、迷走神經、冠狀靜脈| 主動脈、胸管、奇靜脈| :::info 進優格食糜,煮雞胸 ::: #### 媽媽手 De Quervain disease * first dorsal compartment * abductor pollicis longus * extensor pollicis brevis * ![](https://i.imgur.com/ZPImTp2.jpg) #### 腳掌plantar/dorsiflextion * PED = **P**eroneal **E**verts and **D**orsiflexes, injured → foot drop**PED** * TIP = **T**ibial **I**nverts and **P**lantarflexes, injured → can't stand on **TIP**toes #### Cubital fossa * BAN: biceps brachii tendon, brachial artery, median nerve #### Quadragular vs. triangular space & interval ![](https://i.imgur.com/EZHcNp0.png) :::info 四夜神還宮、空房間隔饒深宮 四夜神都回宮了,空空的房間饒似深宮 四:腋神、環肱 三角空間:環肩胛骨動脈 三角間隔:橈、深肱 ::: #### 半月裂、鼻甲、鼻道 ![](https://i.imgur.com/h7CtEMa.jpg) 中鼻道:篩前篩中額上頷 #### 肺門 :::success Lab,RBA,膈在前阿迷在後 ::: #### 陰囊 ![](https://i.imgur.com/j8hwllb.png) ## 生理 ### 細胞生理 #### 神經纖維 * 麻醉順序: 痛冷溫觸壓運動 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/wLWTvJ1.png) #### 肌肉sarcolemma * ![](https://i.imgur.com/sj6w7QB.png) * T-tubule: * 心肌 Z-line上 * 骨骼肌 A-I 交界 #### 肌肉纖維種類 ![](https://i.imgur.com/zIh2wFu.png) :::success 紅鰻粒多白筷ace 白肌myosin-ATPase多 ::: ### 神經生理 #### 腦波 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/uJBGESL.png) * 貝拉係丟 #### 小腦生理 ![](https://i.imgur.com/GV8wEkJ.png) − 小腦小葉是跟平衡相關,屬於古小腦 − 蚓部(vermis)位於正中間,和小腦半球的內側部(intermediate zone of hemisphere)都屬於舊小腦的部分,主要功能為協調運動執行、調節肌張力 − 小腦的外側部(lateral zone of hemisphere)屬於新小腦的部分,功能即為計 畫和設計動作的進行、協調精細運動。 ### 呼吸生理 #### Apneustic center * 橋腦下部,促進呼吸 * 若受損,變成深吸一口氣後中止,再小小吐氣。 #### ventral medulla * 平靜吸氣 #### dorsal medulla * 運動呼吸 #### volume * ![](https://i.imgur.com/EVFS1iW.png) * IR T ER R: IRene Took ER Residency * IC: IR T * VC: IR T ER * FRC: ER R * Fibrosis: 整體肺容積下降→FRC↓ * Emphysema: 吐不出來→FRC↑ #### Restrictive vs. Obstructive lung disease ![](https://i.imgur.com/fBK8AuF.png) #### intrapleural pressure ![](https://i.imgur.com/JLFgxDA.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/tiBCkim.png) ### 心血管生理 #### Gibbs-Donan * 平衡膜電位:某離子在選擇性通透膜兩端的初始若濃度不同(但內外各自電量平衡),會有離子流動與離子流動時產生的反向吸引力。造成該反向吸引力的胞內外位能差即為平衡膜電位。 #### 高血鉀 => High T wave * 高血鉀 → ↑鉀離子平衡膜電位(less negative, 移出胞外較原本少量即可達到抵銷的反向吸引力) → depolarized Em * [The Electrophysiology of Hypo- and Hyperkalemia](https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5399982/#S9title) * depolarized Em → 鈉離子通道需要更多時間從inactivation state恢復(儘管舒張期縮短(APD)) * APD shortening (血鉀高 → 異位調控 → ↑鉀離子通道通透性 → ↑過極化) * ERP * ↓ERP:一開始鉀離子升高 * ↑ERP:鉀離子更高 → remain refractory after repolarization * altered conducting velocity: biphasic * 1\) Em跟鈉離子通道閾值的差(↑Em → 鈉離子通道易開); 2\) ↑Em → ↑steady-state inactivation of Na channel * \< 8 mmol/L: 1\)重要 → ↑CV → fast * \> 8 mmol/L: 2\)重要 → ↓CV → slow * inexcitability at [K+]o >14 mmol/l * Reentrant tachycardia/tachyarrythmia * 高血鉀 → * ↓鈉離子通道availability → localized conduction block → ↑reentrant機率 * early repolarization of AP → predisposing the heart to phase 2 reentry, as in Brugada, Short QT and Early Repolarization (J-wave) Syndromes * EKG: * peaked T wave:post-repolarization refractoriness * QRS widening:CV slow * ventricular tachycardia #### 心音 * S1: 房室瓣關閉 * 左心室血少 → 左心室壓力上升快(沒有血阻止心室收縮) → 聲音大 * MS * 心搏過速 * S2: 動脈瓣關閉 * Splitting S2 * 吸氣 → ↑靜脈回流 → ↑右心血量 → P2晚 * ASD (atrial septal defect)、PS (pulmonary stenosis)、肺動脈栓塞 → ↑右心血量 → P2晚 * S3: 心室舒張快速充填 * 高音調、低強度 * \> 40y/o:心室功能受損 * S4: 心室舒張晚期奔馬律,心室compliance↓ → 心房有效收縮時,心室充填 * AS、高血壓、肥厚性心臟病、缺血性心臟病 → ↓左心室compliance(心室打不開、同樣dV充填時壓力變化大) #### dicrotic notch (aortic pressure): isovolumetric ventricular relaxation ![](https://i.imgur.com/TqBn7ZL.jpg) #### 心動週期 壓力 ![](https://i.imgur.com/4fxZOab.png) #### Preload vs. Afterload * Preload: end-diastolic volume, right atrial pressure * ↑ Venous return → 拉長ventricular muscle fibers * Frank-Starling: ↑ venous return → ↑ stroke volume * Afterload: aortic/pulmonary artery pressure ### 腎臟生理 #### RTA (renal tubular acidosis) * Metabolic acidosis: 因為bicarbonates流失,Cl-離子代償性增加,最後會是normal anion gap metabolic acidosis * Distal RTA (type 1) * Pathophysiology:α-intercalated cells of the distal tubule無法分泌H+. * Proximal RTA (type 2) * 原因:[Fanconi syndrome](https://hackmd.io/xP62PKc0Srije8rcDq7b8w?view#%E5%88%A9%E5%B0%BF%E5%8A%91) * Pathophysiology: PCT無法再吸收HCO3- * Mixed RTA (type 3) * CAII deficiency (@PCT) * Pathophysiology: DCT無法分泌H+ (type 1) & HCO3- wasting * **Hyperkalemic** RTA (type 4): * 原因:hypoaldosteronism (Addison disease, primary adrenal insufficiency)/aldosterone resistance * Pathophysiology: hyperkalemia → ↓ NH3製造@PCT → ↓ NH4+排出 ### 內分泌生理 #### 腎上腺 * Give Me Funny Glucose Right Away * Glommerulosa: Mineralcorticoids * Fasciculata: Glucocorticoids * Reticularis: Androgen #### GLUT4 GLUT2 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/gKGBjum.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/786A7AR.png) * SGLT1: enterocyte apical, Na+-dependent absorption * ![](https://i.imgur.com/cKo421W.png)a * SGLT2: PCT, resorption ## 寄生蟲學 ### 自體感染 :::info * **非**常**短**的**桿子**也讓你求**饒**,必**有隱**情,原來是**自幹** * 菲律賓毛線蟲(Capillaria philippinensis)、 * 短小包膜絛蟲(Hymenolepis nana)、 * 糞小桿毛線蟲(Strongyloides stercoralis)、 * 蟯蟲( Enterobius vermicularis)、 * 有鉤絛蟲( Taenia solium)、 * 隱孢子蟲(Cryptosporidium parvum) ::: ### 幼蟲移行 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/f8yUajN.jpg) ### 吸蟲 vs. 血吸蟲 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/pm2ihR4.jpg) ### 四核 * 梨形鞭毛蟲:兩滋四囊 * 痢疾阿米巴 * 哈氏阿米巴 * 微小阿米巴 :::info 四粒哈利維 八顆大腸 ::: ## 免疫 [daily immunology](https://www.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=228565441187861&id=169875857056820) ### PRRs - PAMPs * ![](https://i.imgur.com/aGrMRGi.png) ### Cytokines :::info 1. 看到 發炎 想到IL-1 IL-6 TNF-alpha 2. 看到 淋巴球增生 想到IL-2 3. 看到 TH2 想到 IL-4(IgE class switching) IL-5(eosinophil) IL-13 4. 看到 吞噬 想到TH1, macrophage 然後是IFN-gamma IL-12 5. 看到 TH17 想到 **IL-6, TGF-beta** => 分化成Th17 **IL-23** => IL-17(chemokine, G-CSF分泌增加) , IL-22 6. 看到 免疫抑制 想到Treg 然後是**IL-10, TGF-beta** 7. 至於plasmacytoid dendritic cell(pDC) 會分泌Type 1 interferon(IFN-alpha&beta) IFN-gamma是type 2喔 8. 骨髓中淋巴球成熟,想到IL-7 9. 啊你會問IL-8在哪裡,他就是CXCL8,會吸引neutrophil,報警的意思 10. 漿細胞分化 IL-21 12. IgG1產生 IL-21, IL-4 ![](https://i.imgur.com/PxVvFsf.jpg) * FC 記憶⼝口訣:16 發炎、2T12NK 生長、37 分化、4E5A、8 趨化、10 抑制 ::: * IL-17, IFN-gamma 遲發型過敏 (T-cell mediated) * IL-17: 吸引嗜中性白血球(stimulates neutrophil recuitment) #### Th1 response vs. Th2 response * Th1: 123αβγ: * IL2,3; TNFα,β; IFNγ * Th2: 23456,10,13: * IL3,4,5,6,10,13 ![](https://i.imgur.com/2XZ0c0E.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/pqZ5HOA.png) ### B cell maturation #### Somatic hypermutation * ![](https://i.imgur.com/P6IoXel.jpg) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/eqQQQ4G.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/Jv8jIRM.png) #### Pro-B pre-B ![](https://i.imgur.com/T53heVM.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/zZwVVzx.png) ### Pre-B/T #### V(D)J Recombination * TdT: junctional diversity * RAG1/2 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/UCCe6Wh.png) * 形成germline transcript之前DNA recombination決定constant chain的isotype #### 分泌型抗體/膜結合型抗體 ![](https://i.imgur.com/JVS7Ktk.png) ### T cell type ![](https://i.imgur.com/nfQOcn8.png) ### 自體免疫疾病 #### [SLE diagnostic criteria](https://www.uptodate.com/contents/image/print?imageKey=RHEUM%2F122388~RHEUM%2F122408&topicKey=RHEUM%2F4668&source=see_link) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/bXTF1z9.jpg) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/pbBYtdp.jpg) ### 器官移植排斥 器官移植排斥是 T cell 主導 急性器官移植排斥是補體系統,治療要抑制CD59 ### Immunotherapy #### mAb * [ref] 108-2-2-28 * (A) Multiple sclerosis 以 Natalizumab (Anti-VLA-4)治療 * (B) Metastatic melanoma 以 Ipilimumab (Anti-CTLA-4)治療 * (C\) Chronic myeloid leukemia 以 Alemtuzumab (Anti-CD52)治療 * (D) Chronic asthma 以 Omalizumab (Anti-IgE)治療 * Anti-PD-1: Pembrolizumab, Nivolumab * Anti-PD-L1: Atezolizumab ## 微免 ### 培養 #### 腸菌 * 鹽:抑制Gram+,Vibrio、Enterobacteriacae * | 發酵葡萄糖 | 不發酵葡萄糖 | | --- | -------------------------- | | 腸內桿菌科 | Acinetobacter、Pseudomonas | #### Oxidase :::info * Oxidase(+) bacteria: 跟奶子AV搞4P,嘴巴張開”ㄚ” 奶: Neisseria A: Aeromonas V: Vibrio 4: 就這4隻菌 P: Pseudomonas “ㄚ”(壯聲詞): Oxidase ::: #### 微嗜氧 * Helicobacter * Campylobacter * Treponema * Borrelia #### 絕對厭氧 :::info * ABCD * Acinetobactor * Bacteroides * Clostridium ::: ### 細菌 #### Rheumatic fever vs. * Poststreptococcal glomerulonephritis * 發燒,喉嚨痛(咽喉炎,出血點,潰瘍等) * 並且可能併發**急性腎炎**,因此有血尿,蛋白尿等情形。 * 另外鏈球菌有 **M-protein antigen**,跟關節處的抗原很像,因此長時間的感染後會有類風性關節炎及風濕性心肌炎的可能(**類風性因子陽性**) * Rheumatic fever * 病原也是第一型鏈球菌,但會有關節疼痛,粗糙皮疹從軀幹到四肢 #### 立克次體 :::info 普斑立恙 蝨蚤蜱蟎 流地山林 ::: * 普蝨 斑蚤 立蜱 恙蟎 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/L8D2gJf.jpg) ### 病毒 ![](https://i.imgur.com/NPThMHt.jpg) ### 先天性感染 * 先天性感染包括 TORCH * T:弓形蟲(Toxoplasma gondii):脈絡膜視網膜炎、水腦、顱內鈣化 * O:其他(Others):梅毒、HIV、Parvovirus B19、腸病毒、VZV、Zika * R:德國麻疹(Rubella):感音神經性耳聾、白內障、心臟畸形、生長遲緩、智能障礙、骨骼、肝臟、脾臟等長期損害 * C:巨細胞病毒(Cytomegalovirus):脈絡膜視網膜炎、感音神經性耳聾、影響神經發育(智能障礙、小腦症、運動障礙、腦鈣化、癲癇) * H:單純皰疹病毒 (Herpes Simplex Virus):高熱、呼吸困難、CNS 病變 ### 疫苗 #### 活性減毒疫苗 :::info 輪到日本MMR去黃河玩水喝冰沙 ::: * 輪(輪狀病毒)到日本(日本腦炎)M(Measles)M(Mumps)R(Rubella)去黃(黃熱病)河(結核卡介苗)玩水(水痘)喝冰沙(小兒沙賓(口服)疫苗) ### 真菌 #### 單型性 v. 雙型性 |單型性|雙型性| |---|---| |Cryptococcus|Histoplasma, Coccidiodomycosis, Blastocymes| #### Chromoblastomycosis 產色芽孢 * Phialophora verrucosa 疣狀瓶黴菌 #### 瓶狀孢子梗 flask-shaped phialides * Aspergillus #### 芽生孢子 * Cryptococcus #### 分節孢子 arthroconidia/arthrospores * Coccidiodomycosis * !斷裂成桶狀(barrel-shaped) #### 雪茄狀單細胞(cigar-shaped yeast) * Sporothrix shenckii * 玫瑰園丁症(rose gardener's disease) = sporothricosis ## 藥理 [reference: 國考藥訣](https://bit.ly/2VNjVoH) ### 抗生素 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/E3DbGQT.png) * Metronidazole: inhibit nucleic acid synthesis by disrupting DNA, @reduced form in anaerobic #### Cephalosporin :::info 肝臟代謝:媽的賠了三支斧頭 ::: * meta, pera, triax * ![](https://i.imgur.com/9d9ez3W.jpg) #### Aminoglycoside * 這是一個減肥很痛苦四處牽拖的人的故事 :::info * Amy又該(Aminoglycoside)說都是我的錯(mysin, -mycin)帶他四處吃喝,害他又胖了現在要減肥不能吃(不可口服) * 減肥快窒息了需要氧氣(對厭氧菌無效),只剩耳機(腎、耳、肌肉毒性)可以療癒心情 ::: #### 特殊用藥 * 淋病 Neisseria: * 首選:Ceftriaxone/Cefixime [3rd cephalosporin] * 替代:Spectinomycin [30S Aminoglycoside], Ofloxacin/Levofloxacin [Quinolone] * 砂眼披衣菌 Chlamydia: * 首選:Doxycycline [30S Tetracycline], Azithromycin [50S macrolide] * 替代:Oflaxacin/Levofloxacin [Quinolone], Clindamycin [50S macrolide] * 砂眼淋病皆可用:Oflaxacin * Pseudomembranous colitis:Metronidazole * Bacteroides fragilis: Metronidazole * Fluoroquinolones * 院內感染綠農桿菌,沙門桿菌,前列腺炎:2 Ciprofloxacin * 社區型肺炎:Levofloxacin * 吸入性肺炎、厭氧:Moxifloxacin * Anti-mycobacterial: HERZ * H, INH, Isoniazid * E, EMB, Ethambutol * 無肝毒性 * 唯一抑菌 * R, RIF, Rifampin * Z, PZA, Pyrazinamide * 無肝毒性 * 對Streptomycin有抗藥性的: Amikacin * 非典型肺炎 Legionella、Chlamydophila pneumoniae、Mycoplasma pneumoniae: Azithromycin * Listeria腦膜炎: Ampicillin #### 抑制核醣體 * Initiation complex formation: aminoglycoside * A-site **t**RNA binding: **t**etracycline * Peptidyl trans**f**erase: chloram**ph**enicol * Trans**l**ocation: macro**l**ide & clindamycin ### 藥理學概論 #### 酸鹼性藥物 * 弱酸: aspirin, acetaminophen, phenobarbital, MTX (酸化促吸收) * 弱鹼: amphetamine, morphine (鹼化促吸收) #### CYP3A4 inducer vs. inhibitor |inducer|inhibitor| |---|---| |phenobarbital, barbiturate, rifampin, carbamazepine, phenytoin|cimetidine, statin, erythromycin, ketoconazole| #### Warfarin |增加藥效 (↑PT)|減少藥效| |---|---| |metronidazole, fluconazole, TMP-SMX|cholestyramine| |amiodarone, disulfiram, cimetidine|barbiturate, rifampin| |3rd gen cephalosporin|| #### 交互作用 106-1-2-51 A. 葡萄柚汁會抑制triazolam在體內代謝 B.cimetidine會抑制propranolol在體內代謝 C.nortriptyline會抑制antipyrine在體內代謝 D.spironolactone會抑制digoxin在體內代謝 #### Acetylation @肝 有三種藥物在肝臟以 acetylation 的方式代謝: 1. Hydralazine 2. Procainamide 3. Isoniazid #### Potency vs. Efficacy * Potency is the concentration (EC50) or dose (ED50) of a drug required to produce 50% of that drug's maximal effect. * Efficacy (Emax) is the maximum effect which can be expected from this drug (i.e. when this magnitude of effect is reached, increasing the dose will not produce a greater magnitude of effect) ### 自主神經 #### 散瞳 * Phenylephrine: α1 輻射狀虹膜 #### Glaucoma * <img style="size:100%" src="https://i.imgur.com/cOalFTD.png"> * <img style="size:100%" src="https://i.imgur.com/ERHibBx.png"> * ABCDP * ![](https://i.imgur.com/Myl1Rvd.png) #### Pheochromocytoma * α1α2 antagonist * Phentolamine: 診斷 (NE皮膚白副作用治療) * Phenoxybenzamine: 治療 #### cAMP, cGMP * cAMP, cGMP (活化PKG以磷酸化MLCP) → 血管平滑肌舒張 ### Opioid toxicity * ![](https://i.imgur.com/QlCoXAV.png) #### Dopamine * 低劑量(D1):腎小動脈擴張 * 中劑量(β1):刺激心跳 * 高劑量(α1):血管收縮 * 抑制prolactin (antipsychotics SE: ↑ prolactin) ### 抗焦慮、鎮靜安眠 * BZD * 解毒劑Flumazenil ### 抗癲癇 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/xA3ktaL.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/15RajvS.png) * 大發作: phenobarbital, phenytoin, -gaba-, -amate, lamotrigine * 小發作: phenobarbital, ethosuximide, valproic acid, clonazepam ### Histamine 組織胺 * Agonist: 促進胃酸分泌 * Blocker: 抑制胃酸分泌 (H2)、sedation、止吐 (H1) ### 心血管 #### Selective β1 antagonist :::info A-BEAM ::: * atenolol, betaxolol, esmolol, acebutolol, metoprolol #### ACEI * Indication: DM-related nephropathy (↓efferent arteriolar resistance,減少濾出。糖尿病腎病變是腎絲球失去負電,讓蛋白質濾出傷害腎小管) #### 心律不整 |type|funciton|examples| |---|---|---| |Ia|↓心室傳導|quinidine, procainamide, disopyramide| |Ib|↓心室傳導|lidocaine, mexiletine| |Ic|↓心室傳導|flecainide, propafenone| |II|beta blocker, ↓ AV conduction (rate control)|propranolol, esmolol| |III|K channel blocker|**Sotalol, amiodarone**| |IV|CCB, ↓ AV conduction (rate control)|verapamil, diltiazem, bepridil (non-DHP)| :::info A長B短C不變 (QT) ::: * Ia, III最容易導致QT prolong, Torsades de pointes (K+ channel blocker) * Amiodarone (III)例外,因為抑制adrenergic receptor跟CCB → 心跳變慢 ### 利尿劑 ![](https://i.imgur.com/AT40oJt.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/V3E7UYk.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/kyxgfch.png) #### CA inhibitor * Proximal tubule * ![](https://i.imgur.com/G2M4AfJ.png) * Na-H交換↓ → 鹼化尿液 * e.g. acetazolamide #### NKCC inhibitor * Henle loop thick ascending * e.g. Loop diuretics: Furosemide * SE: +aminoglycoside耳毒性 #### Thiazide * Distal convoluted tubule #### 保鉀型 * SE: 高血鉀酸中毒 * Collecting duct * e.g. Spironolactone * indication: 肝硬化腹水、水腫,3rd space水導致RAAS啟動增加血中水量,但是白蛋白不夠,水又跑到3rd space。spironolactone抑制aldosterone。 ### 抗凝血劑 #### Indirect thrombin inhibitor * 結合antithrombin III → ↓factor Xa + IIa (thrombin, 只有heparin可以) * SE: 出血(Protamine治) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/GF7ZrqU.png) #### Direct thrombin inhibitor Bivalirudin , Hirudin , Lepirudin, Melagatran, Argatroban ### 腸胃藥 #### 止瀉劑 * Opioid: 減少蠕動 #### 血清素 serotonin | agonist | antagonist | | ------------------ | ------------ | | 增加蠕動治療胃輕癱 | 減少蠕動止吐 | | 抑制食慾 | | | 抗焦慮 | | | 血管收縮治療偏頭痛 | | * SE: constipation (5-HT3an), vasospasm (5-HT1), 心搏過速 (5-HT4) * Serotonin syndrome (合併 SSRI + MAOI): * 嘔吐、焦慮、體溫上升、失眠、腹瀉、勃起、血壓上升、肌肉痙攣。 * 嚴重者:插管並用 5-HT2 blocker, 解痙攣: Benzodiazepine。 ### 全身麻醉 anesthetics * 脂溶性 λ (oil/gas)高者, MAC (minimal alveolar concentration)低, potency 高 * λ (blood/gas)高者, 平衡需時較久, induction time高 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/PAZ6i3X.png) :::info **用NDS上IE逛H&M** ::: * 例外: * MAC:因為MAC超強,打倒Windows(IE) ,所以IE順序顛倒 * B/G:因為有背景,所以波波能很快就升上去更高的職位,成為「第N」個(DN)熱門科R1,ND在這裡順序顛倒,而且從「很快」這兩個關鍵字可以聯想到Desflurane超短效的(很快) ### 糖尿病 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/dUzcI9R.png) * SGLT2 inhibitor * ![](https://i.imgur.com/4S7K6Ek.png) ### 重金屬 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/FZQYzZO.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/mxrv9Ee.png) ### 乳癌 #### SERM * Tamoxifen: estrogen antagonist at breast, **agonist at endometrium** * Raloxifen: **relax! No endometrial cancer risk.** estrogen antagonist at breast & endometrium. * Both estrogen **agonist at bone** → se. DVT; ind. osteoporosis * Clomiphene:為SERMs (Selective estrogen receptor modulator) 的一種,也就是雌激素的partial agonist──在卵巢作為agonist,在腦下垂體則是antagonist。由於會阻斷腦下垂體的estrogen receptor,因此可以擋住estrogen 的負回饋,讓GnRH、FSH 等分泌不會受到負回饋減少,達成增加這些激素濃度升高,進而促進排卵,治療不孕(只能治療class II,為estrogen 含量正常的患者)。但可能會造成子宮內膜變薄。 ### 化療藥物 * NHL: CHOP (cyclophosphamide, doxorubicin, vincristine, prednisone) * Hodgkin’s lymphoma: ABVD (doxorubicin, bleomycin, vinblastine, dacarbazine) * Breast cancer: CMF/CAF (cyclophosphamide, Methotrexate, 5-FU); Paclitaxel + Herceptin * B cell NHL: R-CHOP (rituximab) * AML: AraC + doxorubicin / mitoxantrone * Colorectal cancer: 5-FU + Leucovorin; Irinoteccan * Testes cancer: PBV (cisplatin, bleomycin, ) ### 免疫抑制劑 * Mycophenolate mofetil: * 抑制inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH, purine de novo pathway) ### 大麻 * 緩解疼痛 * **提昇**食慾 * 快感(euphoria)和放鬆 * 減少噁心 ### Eicosanoids * PGE1 & PGI2: 血管舒張 * Alprostadil: PGE1,延遲動脈導管關閉 * Epoprostenol: PGI2, 治療肺動脈高壓 ### 可穿過BBB ![](https://i.imgur.com/AX94Skw.png) :::info Chlor*amphe*nicol, *sulfonamides, TMP*, *Rif*ampin, *Flu*conazole, *Metro*nidazole 安非葉酸來扶Metro ::: ### 副作用 * Lupus-like syndrome: hydralazine * 男性女乳: * Cimetidine: H2R an ### 解藥 * insulinoma: diazoxide (K+ channel agonist → ↓ insulin) * Acetaminophen中毒:acetylcysteine * Cyanide中毒:hydroxocobalamin, Nitrite, Sodium thiosulfate ## 生化 ### 糖解 * 磷葡, 磷果, 雙磷果, 跳過水溝大胖豬偷窺冰桶 * dhap: dap 有跳的意思 * g3p: gap * 1,3-BPG: big * 3PG 2PG: pig * pep 丙酮酸: peep(偷窺)冰桶 ### 胺基酸 #### 必須胺基酸 WTF MILK HRV :::info TW HK VR FILM ::: 1.Valine (Val, V) 2.Leucine (Leu, L) 3.Isoleucine (IlE, I) 4.Methionine (Met, M) 5.Phenylalanine (Phe, F) 6.Tryptophan (Trp, W) 7.Threonine (Thr, T) 8.Lysine (Lys, K) 9.Arginine (Arg, R) 10.Histidine (His, H) #### 各種代謝來源 🔑從Pyruvate代謝:一大SAC(Ser. Ala. Cys.)的蛤蜊(Gly)黏TT(Thr. Trp.) 🔑從acetyl CoA代謝:我愛(lle)背著硫酸(Leu)去旅行(Trp),超口愛(CoA代謝) 🔑從alpha-ketoglutarate代謝:His. Pro. A級(Arg.)大GG(Glu. Gln.) 🔑從Succinyl-CoA代謝:吃到Sushi (從Succinyl-CoA)就VOMIT!V(Val.) O(odd chain fatty acid) M(Met.) I(Ile.) T(Thr.) 🔑從Fumarate代謝:PAT 拍拍(Phe. Asp. Tyr.)很有fu!(從fumarate) 🔑從OAA代謝:噢!AA! (Asn. Asp.) 🔑從Acetoacetate代謝:三苯(Phe. Tyr. Trp.)老老(Leu. Lys.)的童(酮)書。 ![](https://i.imgur.com/2yqNeqV.png) [reference]: 高雄醫學大學 SY Jin #### 胺基酸合成產物 * Porphyrin: succinyl-CoA + glycine * Glutathione: glutamate + cysteine + glycine * Adenine: glycine + aspartate + glutamine ### 醣類 #### Glycosidic bond * Amylose 為直鏈澱粉,以(α1→4) glycosidic bond 鍵結 * Glycogen 為肝醣,主鏈以(α1→4) glycosidic bond 鍵結,支鏈以(α1→6) glycosidic bond 鍵結(同支鏈澱粉 amylopectin) * Cellulose 為纖維素,以(β1→4) glycosidic bond 鍵結 * Dextran 為右旋糖酐,主鏈以(α1→6) glycosidic bond 鍵結,⽀鏈以(α1→3) glycosidic bond 鍵結 #### 檸檬酸循環 * Citrate Is Kreb's Starting Substrate For Making Oxaloacetate * Citrate=>Isocitrate=>(alpha) Ketoglutarate=> Succinyl-CoA=>Succinate=>Fumarate=>Malate=>Oxaloacetate * ![](https://i.imgur.com/iWKfyN4.png) ``` C I K S S F M O CO2 CO2 +H2O NADH NADH FADH2 NADH GTP irre. irre. irre. ``` :::info ``` python TCA.index("Citrate") = 0 ``` 產物 * NADH: 126 * FADH2: 4 * GTP: 3 * CO2: 12 ::: #### 糖解作用 ![](https://i.imgur.com/8NER97S.png) <details><summary style="color:cadetBlue">carboxyhydrate full pathway</summary> ![](https://i.imgur.com/uphzPCw.png) </details> 醣解作用不可逆的三個反應酶 Glucokinase葡萄糖激酶(或是Hexokinase) Phosphofructokinase磷酸果糖激酶(鄰國) Pyruvate Kinase(丙酮酸激酶,丙長的像西) 葡萄牙的鄰國是西班牙 加上了另一個耗能不過可逆的酵素PGK :::info 香港(HK)的大前鋒(PF)要跟控球後衛(PG)PK ::: HK:Hexokinase PFK:Phosphofructokinase PGK:Phosphoglycerate kinase PK:pyruvate kinase ![](https://i.imgur.com/660o9ia.png) #### Oxidative phosphorylation: 電子傳遞鏈 ![](https://i.imgur.com/Kfg2oD9.png) * Succinate 變為 Fumarate 的過程會產生 FADH2 => 電子給Q * Rotenone * Antimycin A * CN, CO #### 氧化過氧化代謝 ★ H2O2 由 glutathione peroxidase 清除,而·O2- 自由基由 superoxide dismutase 清除 #### 糖質新生 * 可進行糖質新生的 precursor 有 * Lactate, Pyruvate, Glycerol, alpha keto acid * 酵素: * pyruvate carboxylase, PEP carboxykinase, fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, G6P ### 脂質 #### 運輸 * HDL提供 * Apo CII → chylomicrons, VLDL活化lipoprotein lipase降解成TG * Apo E → chylomicrons, VLDL, IDL, HDL remnants uptake 吸收 (hepatocyte) * Apo B48: chylomicrons腸道分泌至淋巴 * Apo B100: hepatocyte分泌出的VLDL,IDL,LDL上。LDLR結合吸收 (peripheral tissue) * 血液中運送脂類的物質: * 1. 運送脂肪酸:albumin * 2. 運送膽固醇:LDL(“不好的”,因為是將膽固醇送至周邊組織), HDL(“好的”,因為是將膽固醇送至肝臟分解) * 3. 運送三酸甘油酯:VLDL(送出肝臟), Chylomicron(從小腸吸收入體內) #### 膽固醇合成 ![](https://i.imgur.com/eUASMfY.png) ### 核酸 #### 嘌呤合成 * De novo * +G6PD * Ribose 5-P * <a style="color:darkcyan">Hypoxanthine </a> * +PRPP synthase * +Glutamine-PRPP Amidotransferase * <a style="color:darkcyan">IMP</a> * +**Asp** => **A**MP * +IMPDH => XMP; XMP +**Gln** => **G**MP * <a style="color:red">HGPRT: salvage pathway</a> * *hypoxanthine, guanine* + PRPP +**HGPRT** => *IMP/GMP* * Lesch-Nyhan syndrome * *adenine* + PRPP +**APRT** => *AMP* * ![](https://i.imgur.com/qBr8fHt.png) * ![](https://i.imgur.com/36kZIVh.png) #### Pyrimidine合成 * De novo * CO2 +Gln => * Carbamoyl phosphate * +Asp * <a style="color:darkcyan">**Orotic** acid</a> * +PRPP * <a style="color:darkcyan">*UMP*</a> * => UDP + **Gln** => *CTP* * => UDP => dUMP +**Thymidylate synthase** (Methylene THF) => dTMP * **hydroxyurea**抑制ribonucleotide reductase * <a style="color:red">Salvage pathway:</a> * Thymidine + PRPP +**Thymidine kinase(TK)** => TMP #### 嘌呤代謝 * AMP去磷酸水解成adenosine +**ADA** (adenosine deaminase) => *inosine*; GMP => *guanosine* * 去五碳糖 => *hypoxanthine; guanine* * 繼續分解 => *xanthine* +**xanthine oxidase** => uric acid #### Pyrimidine代謝 * C U ala * Thymine => aminoisobutyrate (塞me 愛縮butt啦) #### 運輸 * 核酸代謝成氨,經轉胺作用成... * @肌肉: alanine * @其他地方:guanine * ...運送至其他地方 ### 維生素輔酶 |Vitamin|Function|Deficiency| |---|---|---| |Vit B1 Thiamine|1. decarboxylation (產生CoA)<br>2. trasnketolase|1. **beriberi**<br>2. Wernicke's/Korsakoff encephalopathy 急/慢性腦病變<br>3. ↑ Pyruvate, alpha-ketoglutarate | |Vit B2 Riboflavin|FAD, FMN (傳遞能量, 有adenosine)|口角炎 (cheliosis)、舌炎、脂漏性皮膚炎| |Vit B3 Niacin|Trp → Niacin → NADH, NADPH|Pellegra (3D, dermatitis, dementia, diarrhea)| |Vit B5 Pantothetic acid|1. CoA前驅 (泛酸+adenosine)<br>2. acetylation <br>(Acetyl-CoA, Malonyl-CoA [lipid];<br> Acetyl-CoA, Acetoacetyl-CoA, HMG-CoA [ketone])| |Vit B6 Pyridoxine|1. 轉胺、脫氨 (alpha-ketoglutarate → glutamate → glutamine)<br>2. 肝醣分解|1. 周邊神經炎 (isoniazid TB)<br>2. 尿中xanthurenate增加(Trp=X=>Niacin)| |Vit B12 cobalamin|甲基轉換<br>homocysteine → methionine<br>5-methyl THF → THF|1. Cause: 萎縮性胃炎 (parietal cell intrinsic factor)、短腸症候群 (ileum)<br>2. Deficiency: perinicious anemia, Macrocytic anemia, neurological s/s<br>3. 尿中methymalonate增加| |Folate|5,10-methylene THF參與dUMP→dTMP|1. Macrocytic anemia<br>2. 尿中formiminoglutamate增加| |Vit B7 Biotin|**Carboxylation**<br>1. 糖質新生: pyruvate → OAA<br>2. 脂質合成: 2 Acetyl-CoA → Malonyl-CoA<br>3. 尿素循環: NH₄⁺ + CO₂ → Carbamoyl phosphate<br>**Biotinylation**: +lysine| |Vit C Ascorbic|Collagen (proline, lysine hydroxylation)|Scurvy| * THF = 6-metylpterin + p-aminobenzoate + glutamate :::success 從微風地下室下樓的故事 他說轉頭,肥乃!哭齁依細,霹靂多轉彎肝腸寸斷。生物說他需要新糖盒子,真假係哩 脫酸轉酮,FAD NAD! CoA乙烯,pyridoxine轉胺肝醣分解。生物素羧化新生糖合成脂,氨甲醯磷酸 ::: ### 細胞膜 |Disease|Mutation| |---|---| |Tay-Sachs (tAy-saX)|Hexosaminidase A <br>↑ **GM2 ganglioside**| |Fabry's|alpha-galactosidase A 半乳糖苷酶<br>↑ **ceremide trihexoside**| |**G**aucher's|beta-**g**lucocerebrosidase 葡[萄糖]腦苷脂酶<br>↑ glucocerebroside| |Niemann-**P**ick|s**p**hingomyelinase 神經磷脂酶<br>↑ sphingomyelin| ![](https://i.imgur.com/IvwB80N.jpg) #### GPI 若 GPI 的組裝出問題(通常是幫助形成 GPI 的酵素出問題),可能會造成陣發性夜間血尿症( Paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria, PNH)。 血球表面的 GPI 上會有保護血球不被自身補體攻擊的蛋白質(GPI-anchored proteins),例如有名的 CD55 (又叫 Decay-accelerating factor, DAF)可阻止 c3-convertase 形成;CD59 (又叫 Protectin)可阻止 Membrane attach complex / MAC。因此血球表面的 GPI 缺損會造成血球被攻擊,產生血尿。 ### 代謝疾病 ![](https://i.imgur.com/F7w6aeT.png) ### DNA polymerase ![](https://i.imgur.com/TfafT5C.jpg) ## 病理 [病理筆記 TMU方學長](https://drive.google.com/file/d/1lzkF4Etb_DQfBLH4q8PdrMETUqePIkOu/view?usp=sharing) ### 細胞病理 #### 細胞週期 :::info **4D**電影很棒,**2**個人**E**起看**A**片,畫面只有**一**個**B** :see_no_evil: ::: G1→S:CDK4+cyclinD、CDK2+cyclinE (=> pRB) S→G2:CDK2+cyclinA G2→M:CDK1+cyclinB ### Bone ![](https://i.imgur.com/qNm1t5E.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/Wcscn60.png) ### 血液 #### Lymphoma | 名稱 | 流病 | 來源 | IHC | 細胞 | | ------------------------------------ | --------- | ---------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ | ----------------------------------- | | <b>Hodgkin's</b> | | <b>Germinal center, RS</b> | | | | Nodular LP | young | | CD30- CD15- CD20+ | | | Classical LP | young | | CD45- CD30+ CD15+ CD20- CD3- | | | Nodular sclerosis | 最多young | | | | | <b>B-cell NHL</b> | | | | <b>Diffuse</b> | | CLL/SLL | | Naive B | **CD5+ CD19+(dim)** CD43+ CD23+ | | | Mantle cell lymphoma | | Naive B | **CD5+ CD19+** CD23- **t(11,14) cyclin D1** | small, irregular cleaved nucleus | | Follicular lymphoma | old | Germinal center | **CD20+ CD10+** CD5- **BCL+** | Nodular | | Nodal MZD | | memory B | IgM | monocytoid | | Lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (Waldenström syndrome)| |Memory B|mIgM Pax5+|血液黏稠 (視覺、神經、流血、cryoglobulinemia)| | MALToma | | Memory B | CD20+ t(11,18) | Lymphoepithelial lesion, monocytoid | | Myeloma | | Plasma cell | CD19- CD56+ CD138+ | | | Burkitt | | Germinal center | **CD19+** CD10+ CD3- TdT- BCL- t(8,14) | | | DLBCL | 最常見NHL | | **CD20+** </br>GCB (germinal center B cell-like): CD10+ BCL+</br>ABC (activated B cell-like): MUM1 | | | <b>T-cell/NK-cell NHL</b> | | | | | | Lymphoblastic lymphoma (ALL1/2) | young | Immature B/T | CD3+(T) CD19+(B) TdT+ | | | Nodal Anaplastic Large Cell Lymphoma | 預後最好 | cytotoxic T | CD30+ CD15- t(2,5) | 腎形核 | #### Leukemia * AML vs. ALL * ALL * ALL immature T (CD3+): TdT+ * ALL immature B (CD19+): TdT+ * Burkitt's lymphoma (CD20+): TdT- * AML * without differentiation: CD33+, CD34+ * with maturation: t(8,21) * Acute Promyelocytic Leukemia (APL): t(15,17) PML-RARalpha #### 血小板疾病 * ![](https://i.imgur.com/hI4Ewrw.png) ### Endocrine #### MEN 2A/B * Familial medullary thyroid carcinoma * MEN 2 results in medullary carcinoma, pheochromocytoma, and parathyroid adenomas (2A) or ganglioneuromas of the oral mucosa (2B). #### MEN 1 * PANCREATIC ENDOCRINE NEOPLASMS #### 甲狀腺腫瘤 * @乳突狀 * 分子致病機轉:與 RAS(15%)、RET(20%)/NTRK1(10%)、BRAF(40%)等有關 * Orphan Annie, nuclear grooving * @濾泡狀 * 分子致病機轉:與 RAS(50%)、PAX8-PPARγ1(30%)等有關 * colloid ### 腎臟 #### 腎絲球 * K-W nodule 腎絲球硬化: DM 腎病變 * 鐵線圈(wire-loop)變化: SLE 腎病變(class 3, 4) * 雙圈狀狀(double-contour) = 鐵軌狀狀(tramtrack)變化: MPGN (type 1) * 緻密絲帶狀狀(dense ribbon)變化: MPGN (type 2) * 新⽉月形成(crescent formation)變化: RPGN * 線性堆積(linear deposit): Goodpasture syndrome #### Immune complex * 上⽪皮下(subepithelial): PSGN、MGN、SLE (class 5) * 內⽪皮下(subendothelial): SLE (calss 3, 4)、MPGN (type 1) * 軸膈(mesangium): IgA 腎病變、H-S 紫斑症、SLE (class 2)、FSG * 基底膜(glomerular basement membrane): MPGN (type 2)、FSG ### 消化系統 #### 肝臟AST/ALT * AST/ALT>2: alcoholic liver cirrhosis * AST: ubiquitous; ALT: liver #### 原發性膽汁性肝硬化: * 屬於自體免疫疾病,好發於**中年女性**。 * 特色是非化膿性、**中小型肝內膽管發炎性阻塞**,少有大型肝內膽管或肝外膽管參與,膽管發炎可能(非必須) * 伴隨有**非乾酪型肉芽腫**,門脈區膽管消失;嚴重者可導致膽汁滯留,為 periportal cholestasis,不同於藥物或敗血症引起的 centrilobular cholestasis; * 95%的患者可測得**抗粒線體抗體** ### 統整 #### 鈣化 * Psammoma body:漿液性卵巢癌、甲狀腺乳突癌、腦膜瘤 ## 生統流病 * 敏感性:有病測陽(測驗陰性時排除此病存在) * 特異性:沒病測陰(邏輯上等於測陽有病,測驗陽性時確定此病存在) ### 統計方法 ![](https://i.imgur.com/44Oelcw.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/YPbCMkf.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/WRyvVE6.jpg) ![](https://i.imgur.com/2DTxiR4.jpg) ### Binomial ![](https://i.imgur.com/N3U8BQi.png) ### Degree of freedom 自由度 ![](https://i.imgur.com/DDi8bSl.png) ### Odds ratio * ![](https://i.imgur.com/u8QFCtZ.png) ## 胚胎 [tinynotes](https://www.thetinynotes.com/topic/563/每日一胎-林辰祐) ### 受精 ![](https://i.imgur.com/REgIQMk.png) ### 消化系統 ![](https://i.imgur.com/rfUQUuF.png) ### 泌尿生殖系統 * Mesonephros: * 中腎管:Wolffian duct,男性 副睪、輸精管、儲精囊、射精管 * 副中腎管:Mullerian duct,女性 輸卵管、子宮 * 後腎憩室 (metanephric diverticulum): 腎盂、集尿管、輸尿管 * Metanephros: * 腎元 ### 神經 #### Alar vs. basal plate * ![](https://i.imgur.com/0AG6xYN.jpg) ## COVID-19 ### 生化學 #### Remdesivir合成 * 原料: * L-alanine and phenyl phosphorodichloridate * pyrrolo[2,1-f] [1,2,4]triazin-4-amine * ![](https://i.imgur.com/ev61q7S.png)