###### tags: `生理學`
# 生理學 first term 懶人包
## C1
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**Connective-tissue cells(結締組織細胞)** connect,anchor,and support the structrues of body:
<span style="color:red;font-weight:bold">Types of connectuve tissues include:</span>
- Loose Connective
- Dense Connective
- Blood
- Bone
- Cartilage
- Adipose
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extracellular matrix(ECM)
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**Organs**
**Organ system**
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20 to 25% is in the fluid portion of blood(plasma血漿);
75 to 80% lies around and between cells and is called the
**interstitial fluid**.
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**Intracellular fluid** is the fluid located inside the cells and accounts for **67%** of all the fluid in the body.
7% plasma
26% interstitial fluid
67% intracellular fluid
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Reflexes(反射)
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hormone(賀爾蒙)
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**Neurotransmitters**(神經傳導物質)
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**Norepinephrine**(正腎上腺素)
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Gap junction(縫隙連接)
Juxtacrine signaling(近分泌信號) XXX
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Adaptation(適應)
Acclimatization(水土不服)
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**circadian rhythm**
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**Negative feedback(負回饋作用)** homeostatic responses are corrective responses.
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- Homeostasis is essential for health and survival
- The functions of organ systems are coordinated with each other.
- Most physiological functions are controlled by multiple regulatory systems, often working in opposition
- Information flow between cell, tissues and organs is an essential feature of homeostasis and allow for integration of physiological processes.
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- Controlled exchange of material occurs between compartments and across cellular membranes
- Physiological process are dictated by the laws of chemistry and physics.
- Physiological processes require the transfer and balance of matter and energy.
- Structure is a determinant of and has coevolved with function
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## C2
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**Chemicals Bonds** (化學鍵)
Types of chemical bonds:
- Polar covalent bonds (極性共價鍵)
> Such bonds are known as polar covalent bonds because atoms at each end of the bond have an opposite electrical charge.
- Nonpolar covalent bonds (非極性共價鍵)
> In contrast to polar covalent bonds, bonds between atoms with similar electronegativities are said to be nonpolar covalent bonds.
- Ionic bonds (離子鍵)
> The strong attraction between two oppositely charged
ions is known as an ionic bond.
- Hydrogen bonds (氫鍵)
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Free Radicals(自由基)
> Free radicals are atoms or molecules containing a single (unpaired) electron in an orbital(軌道) of their outer shell.
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solutions (溶液)
solute (溶質)
solvent (溶劑)
**Water is the most abundant solvent in the body,
accounting for approximately <span style="color:red">60% of total body weight.</span>**
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Hydrolysis (水解)
dehydration (脫水)
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In **osmosis(滲透作用)**, water moves from regions of low solute
concentrations to regions of high solute concentrations,
regardless of the specific type of solute.
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hydrophilic, "water-loving" (親水性)
hydrophobic, "water-fearing"(疏水性)
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Carbohydrates (碳水化合物)
> Disaccharides(雙醣) and Polysaccharides(多醣) (Subunit: Monosaccharides(單醣))
Lipids (酯質)
> Triglycerides (Subunits: Fatty Acids, Glycerol(甘油)) (三酸甘油脂)
> Phospholipids (Subunits: Fatty Acids, Glycerol, Others) (磷脂)
> Steroids (類固醇)
Proteins (蛋白質)
> Polypeptides (Subunit: Amino acids)
Nucleic Acids(核酸)
> DNA & RNA (Subunits: Nucleotides)
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Glycogen (肝醣)
**Glucose**(葡萄糖) is often called “blood sugar” because it is the
major monosaccharide found in the blood
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Lipids are nonpolar and have a very low solubility in water.
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When all the carbons in a fatty acid are linked by single covalentbonds, the fatty acid is said to be a <span style="color:blue;font-weight:bold">saturated fatty acid.<span>
Some fatty acids contain one or more double bonds between
carbon atoms, and these are known as <span style="color:blue;font-weight:bold">unsaturated fatty acids.</span>
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Steroids are <span style="color:blue">**NOT water-soluble.**</span>
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Proteins account for about <span style="color:blue">50% of the organic material in the body (17% of the body weight)</span>, and they have critical functions in almost every physiological and homeostatic process.
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The final shape of a protein is known as its
<span style="color:blue">conformation(構型異構物).</span>
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purine (嘌呤) bases: adenine (腺嘌呤，A) and
guanine (鳥嘌呤，G)
pyrimidine(嘧啶) bases: cytosine (胞嘧啶，C)
and thymine (胸腺嘧啶，T)
DNA double helix(雙螺旋)
G is always paired with C, and A with T.
CG,AT
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Ribonucleic Acid (核醣核酸,RNA)
單條
AU(uracil)
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## C3
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Membranes(細胞膜) form a major structural element in cells.
- regulating the passage(進出) of substances(物質) into and out of cells and between cell organells(器官) and cytosol(細胞液)
- detecting chemical messagers arriving at the cell surface
- linking adjacent(鄰近的) cells together by membrane junctions
- anchoring cells to the extracellular matrix
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- The major membrane lipids are phospholipids
- The plasma membrane also contains cholesterol(膽固醇)
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Membrane Junctions (細胞膜接合)
desmosomes (胞橋體)
tight junction (緊密接合)
gap junction (間隙接合)
integrins(整合素)
> integrins are transmembrane proteins that bind
to specific proteins in the extracellular matrix and link them to membrane proteins on adjacent cells.
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Nucleus (細胞核)
nuclear envelope (核套)
nuclear pores (核孔)
nucleolus (核仁)
> The nucleolus is associated with specific regions of DNA
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Ribosomes(核醣體)
> Ribosomes are the protein factories of a cell. They are comprised of protein and RNA.
Endoplasmic Reticulum(內質網)
> The most extensive cytoplasmic organelle is the network of membranes that forms the endoplasmic reticulum.
Golgi Apparatus(高爾基體)
> The Golgi apparatus is a series of closely apposed, flattened membranous sacs that are slightly curved, forming a cup-shaped structure.
Endosomes(內小體)
> Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicular and tubular structures that lie between the plasma membrane and the Golgi apparatus.
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Mitochondria(粒線體)
> Mitochondria participate in the chemical processes that transfer energy from the chemical bonds of nutrient molecules to newly created adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecules.
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Lysosomes(溶酶體)
> Lysosomes are spherical or oval organelles surrounded by a single membrane.
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Peroxisomes(過氧小體)
> Peroxisomes are moderately dense oval bodies enclosed by a single membrane.
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Vaults (拱圓體)
> Vaults are cytoplasmic structures composed of protein and a type of RNA called vault RNA (vRNA).
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Cytoskeleton (細胞支架)
In order of size, starting with the thinnest, they are:(依大小排序，從最薄的開始)
- actin filament (肌動蛋白絲)
>Actin filaments(肌動蛋白絲) are composed of monomers of
the protein G-actin (or “globular actin”).
G-actin, which assembles into a polymer of two twisting chains,is known as F-actin (for “filamentous”).
- intermediate filaments (中間絲)
> Intermediate filaments(中間絲) are composed of twisted
strands of several different proteins, including keratin(角蛋白),desmin(結蛋白), and lamin(核纖層).
- microtubules (微管)
> Microtubules are hollow tubes about 25 nanometer in diameter,whose subunits are composed of the protein tubulin(微管蛋白)
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Proteins(蛋白質)
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Mutations(突變)
Protein Degradation(蛋白質瓦解)
> Different proteins degrage at different rate.
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ligand (配體)
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Protein Binding: Affinity(親和力)
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Saturation (飽和)
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Allosteric Modulation(異位調節)
> Allosteric modulation occurs when a protein has two binding sites and the noncovalent binding of a ligand to one of the sites alters the shape of the second binding site.
Covalent Modulation(共價調節)
> Covalent modulation is the covalent bonding of charged
chemical groups to some of the protein’s side chains. This can change the activity of the protein.
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Cellular metabolism consists of:
- <span style="color:red">**Catabolism (分解作用)**</span>: : the breakdown of organic molecules
- <span style="color:red">**Anabolism (同化作用)**</span>: the synthesis of organic molecules
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Cofactors (輔因子) and Coenzymes (輔酶)
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水溶性,脂溶性
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## C4
Membrane potential(膜電位)
> Membrane potential is a separation of electrical charge that
exists across plasma membranes of all cells.
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Channels (通道) are regulated to control the movement of ions into and out of a cell.
Types of gated channels include:
- Ligand-gated(配體管制)
- Voltage-gated(電位管制)
- Mechanically-gated (機械管制)
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Mediated-Transport System(輔助運輸系統)
Transporters(運輸蛋白)
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Active Transport(主動運輸)
Active transport use energy to move a substance against its concentration gradient.
- The direct use of ATP in <span style="color:red;">primary active transport </span>
- the use of an electrenchemical gradient across a membrane to drive the process in <span style="color:red;">secondary active transport</span>
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Cotransport(正向運輸)
Countertransport(逆向運輸)
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The net diffusion of water across a membrane is called <span style="color:red;">osmosis</span>
Aquaporins(水孔蛋白) are especially important in the kidney(腎臟)
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Isotonic (等張的)
hypotonic (低張的)
hypertonic (高張的)
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Endocytosis(胞吞作用)
> Endocytosis refers to movement of molecules into the cell via vesicles.
> There are three common types of endocytosis that may occur in a cell:
• pinocytosis, (胞飲作用)
• phagocytosis(吞噬作用), and
• receptor-mediated endocytosis. (接受器調節胞吞作用)
Exocytosis(胞吐作用)
> Exocytosis refers to movement of molecules out of the cell via vesicles
> Exocytosis performs two functions for cells:
• It provides a way to replace portions of the plasma membrane that endocytosis has removed, and in the process, a way to add new membrane components as well.
• It provides a route by which membrane-impermeable molecules (such as protein hormones) that the cell synthesizes can be secreted into the extracellular fluid.
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## C5
The receptor functions as both a receptor and as a guanylyl cyclase (鳥苷環化酶), which catalyzes the formation, in the cytoplasm, of a molecule known as cyclic GMP (cGMP)(環化鳥苷單磷酸).
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Enzymes (酶)
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In certain cells, guanylyl cyclase enzymes are present in the cytoplasm. In these cases, a first messenger—**the gas nitric oxide NO**)—diffuses into the cytosol of the cell and combines with the guanylyl cyclase to trigger the formation of cGMP.
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G Protein-Coupled Receptors
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Adenylyl Cyclase and Cyclic AMP
>Activation of the receptor by the binding of the first messenger (for example, the hormone epinephrine).
> Cyclic AMP then acts as a second messenger.
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Mechanism By Which An Activated Receptor
Stimulates the Enzymatically Mediated Breakdown of 𝐏𝐈𝐏𝟐 to Yield 𝐈𝐏𝟑 and DAG
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𝐂𝐚𝟐+, Calmodulin(攜鈣素). , and the Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase System
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Eicosanoids(類花生酸)
> are a family of molecules produced from the polyunsaturated fatty acid arachidonic acid(花生四烯酸),which is present in plasma membrane phospholipids.
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The other pathway is initiated by the enzyme lipoxygenase and leads to formation of the leukotrienes.
> 產生發炎作用lipoxygenase
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阿斯匹林
**Aspirin** inhibits cyclooxygenase and, therefore, blocks the synthesis of the endoperoxides, prostaglandins, and thromboxanes.
It and other drugs that also block cyclooxygenase are collectively termed **nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)**.
(普拿疼)非類固醇消炎藥
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## C6
- central nervous system(CNS 中樞神經)
- peripheral nervous system (PNS 周圍神經)
> the body’s muscles, glands, sense organs, and other
tissues.
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Dendrites (樹突)
axons (突軸)
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In the PNS, glial cells called <span style="color:red;">**Schwann cells (許旺細胞)**</span>
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Node of Ranvier (蘭氏節)
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Three Classes of Neurons
Peripheral nervous system => afferent neuron => Central nervous system => Interneurons => Efferent neuron
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Presynaptic
Postsynaptic
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Glial Cells of the CNS
- **Astrocytes (星狀細胞)**: help regulate the composition of the extracellular fluid in the CNS by removing potassium ions and neurotransmitters around synapses
- **Microglia (微膠細胞)** : are specialized, **macrophage-like cells** that **perform immune functions**
> 一看到macrophage-like cells就要想到immune functions
- **Ependymal cells (室管膜細胞):** regulate the production
and flow of cerebrospinal fluid.
- **Oligodendrocytes (寡突)**: form the myelin sheath of CNS
axons.
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:::danger
Mylien(髓鞘) is an insulator that makes it more difficult for charge to flow between intracellular and extracellular fluid compartments.
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<span style="color:red;">**靜止膜電位 0~-70**</span>
> The magnitude of the resting membrane potential in neurons is generally in the range of −40 to −90 millivolts.
**記-70就對了**
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action potential (動作電位)
> Action potentials are large alterations in the membrane potential; the membrane potential may change by as much as 100 millivolts.
very rapid.
graded potential (漸進電位)
> Graded potentials are changes in membrane potential that are confined to a relatively small region of the plasma membrane
- Depolarization (去極化)
- Repolarization (再極化)
- Hyperpolarization (過極化)
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as **procaine (Novocaine)** and **lidocaine (Xylocaine)** because these drugs block voltage-gated Na+ channels, preventing them from opening in response to depolarization.
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Depolarization=> Na 進去
同時K進入=>K過多=>Repolarization
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Refractory Periods (不反應期)
> During the action potential, a second stimulus, no matter how strong, will not produce a second action potential. That region of the membrane is then said to be in its <span style="color:red">**absolute refractory period**.</span>
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**Following the absolute refractory period**, there is an interval during which a second action potential can be produced, but only if the stimulus strength is considerably greater than usual. This is the **relative refractory period**, which can last as long as 15 milliseconds and coincides roughly with the period of after hyperpolarization.
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Action potential: All-or-none
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Synapses(突觸)
> They can be chemical or electrical.
Electrical(電突觸)
- Pre- and post-synaptic cells are connected by gap junctions.
Chemical(化學突觸)
- Pre-synaptic neurons release neurotransmitters from their axon terminals.
- Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on post-synaptic neurons.
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Removal of Neurotransmitter
To terminate the signal in a chemical synapse, the unbound neurotransmitters must be removed from the synaptic cleft. This is accomplished by:
- active transport back into the presynaptic terminal for
reuse (in a process called reuptake),
- transport into nearby glial cells where they are degraded,
- diffusion away from the receptor site, or
- enzymatic transformation into inactive substances.
1. 吸收
2. 瓦解
3. 擴散到下去的receptor
4. 讓他不會活化
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- Acetylcholine (ACh) is a major neurotransmitter in the PNS
- Neurons that release ACh are called **cholinergic neurons**.
- Ach binds to muscarinic(G protein-coupled) or nicotinic (ligandgated ion channel) receptors.
- Acetylcholine is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme
- Degradation of ACh occurs rapidly due to the action of the enzyme **acetylcholinesterase**
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### Amino Acid Neurotransmitters
刺激:
Amino acid neurotransmitters at **excitatory synapses**
include **aspartate(天冬胺酸鹽 )** and **glutamate(麩胺
酸鹽 ).**
抑制:
Amino acid neurotransmitters at inhibitory synapses
include **glycine (甘胺鹽)**and **GABA(gamma-amniobutyric acid, 丙胺基丁酸)**
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Glutamate
There are 2 types of glutamate receptors:
- metabotropic receptors, which are G-protein coupled,and
- ionotropic receptors (the vast majority).
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GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid) is the major inhibitory
neurotransmitter in the brain.
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Examples of neuropeptides include:
Endogenous opioids
- Beta-endorphin
- Dynorphins
- Enkephalins
- Morphine and codeine are synthetic opioids
that are used as analgesics (pain reducers)
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Gases
Examples include:
- Nitric oxide
- Carbon monoxide
- Hydrogen sulfide
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Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex(大腦皮質)
connected by a massive bundle of axons in a commissure known as the corpus callosum (胼胝體)
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hypothalamus (下視丘)
epithalamus (上視丘)
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Forebrain: Diencephalon 前腦:間腦
with learning, emotional experience and behavior, and a wide variety of visceral and endocrine functions
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Cerebellum(小腦)
it is an important center for coordinating movements and for controlling posture and balance.
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The regions of gray matter projecting toward the back of the body are called the **dorsal horns**, whereas those oriented toward the front are the **ventral horns**.
dorasl horns => ventral horns
背部進去腹出去
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The PNS has 43 pairs of nerves: 12 pairs of cranial(顱骨) nerves and 31 pairs of spinal(脊) nerves.
> cervical (8), thoracic (12), lumbar (5), sacral (5), and coccygeal (1)
- The 8 eight pairs of cervical(頸) nerves innervate the neck, shoulders, arms, and hands.
- The 12 twelve pairs of thoracic(胸) nerves are associated with the chest and upper abdomen(上腹).
- The 5 five pairs of lumbar(腰) nerves are associated with the lower abdomen(下腹), hips(臀), and legs.
- The five pairs of sacral(骶) nerves are associated with the genitals(生殖器) and lower digestive tract(下消化道).
- A single pair of coccygeal(尾椎) nerves associated with the skin over the region of the tailbone brings the total to 31 pairs.
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Autonomic Nervous System (自主神經系統)
autonomic nervous system are the basis for its further subdivision into sympathetic (交感) and parasympathetic divisions (副交感).
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Hydocephalus means “water on the brain.”
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Blood-Brain Barrier(血腦屏障)
感冒藥過BBB=>想睡
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Stroke(中風)
> The most common form of brain damage is caused by a **decreased blood supply to a region of the brain**
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