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# (7) Concluding thoughts

* Some cartographic choices are made consciously, but some are made unconsciously, leading cartographer J.B. Harley to argue, **“the map is a silent arbiter of power.” ([Harley](https://quod.lib.umich.edu/p/passages/4761530.0003.008/--deconstructing-the-map?rgn=main;view=fulltext))**
* Spatial arguments, like this one that shows surface temperature alongside median household income, are powerful and persuasive.
**Thematic maps of Denver, showing the surface temperature and household income.**
* We can make maps to advocate for issues we care about in our communities, like environmental justice. But to do this, we also need to become good *readers* of maps.

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Some choices cartographers make are made consciously with a specific purpose in mind; but some are unconscious, and reflect biases that have been reinforced generation over generation. Some elements of map design that were once choices have been repeated so many times that they've become convention. Any given map we might pick up or click on today is the result of collective decisions that we have come to accept as truths. The expectations we might have for what a map is come from systemic reinforcement of specific traditions of map-making, and perpetuation of these traditions has created a list of “oughts” when looking at a map. Though we have a set of cartographic standards, these too are subjective choices, and there is little that a map must objectively contain.

When we listen to a political speech, we know that what we hear are subjective opinions. But we don't often think of maps as subjective in the same way. This makes it even more important to consciously dissect what is going on in each piece we look at, and to always remember that maps are the culmination of a series of choices made by a mapmaker.

Arguments made by maps have the capacity to be powerful; when we “see” problems laid out spatially, it helps us really understand what is going on. Maps can reveal disparities within communities and help lobby for racial and environmental justice. Consider this map of Denver, which shows a spatial correlation between higher temperatures and lower household incomes:

**Thematic maps of Denver, showing the surface temperature and household income. Placing these maps side by side allows us to see how these variables are correlated: it is hotter where residents are of lower income.**

Maps can show us where gender oppression is particularly pronounced, and they can indicate spatial patterns of underfunding for schools. Maps can help policy-makers understand which parts of their communities need more support. Understanding and using the tools of cartography can help us become more informed citizens with the power to engage with our representatives and communities to enact meaningful, lasting change.

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## Looking ahead to Session 2

In the next session, we will

* Dive deeper into different types of data
* Introduce projections
* Go over the concept of joining spatial and non-spatial data
* Review the different file types you might encounter when making a map
* Have a closer look at the LMEC Public Data Portal and learn about metadata