| | **Hyperledger Besu** | **Hyperledger Fabric** | **Polkadot SDK (Substrate)** |
|:----------------------------- | ----------------------------------------- | --------------------------------------------------------- |:-------------------------------------------------------- |
| **Definition** | Ethereum-compatible execution client | Enterprise grade permissioned distributed ledger platform | Customizable multi-chain blockchain platform |
| **Permission** | Public & Private | Private (Permissioned) | Public & Private (Configurable) |
| **Platform Languages** | Java | Go | Rust |
| **Smart Contracts Languages** | Solidity, Vyper (EVM) | Go, Node.js (Chaincode) | Ink! (Wasm-based) / RISC-V VM in the future (PVM) |
| **Governance** | Off-chain, consortium-based | Off-chain, consortium-based | On-chain, decentralized |
| **Upgrades** | Requires off-chain coordination | Requires off-chain coordination | Forkless, trustless (via on-chain governance) |
| **Consensus** | Clique, IBFT 2.0 (PoA), Ethash (PoW) | Kafka/Zookeeper, Raft (non-BFT), Pluggable | BABE + GRANDPA (PoS), Aura (PoA), Customizable |
| **TPS (Transactions per Second)** | 10-30 TPS on Ethereum mainnet | 3,000+ TPS (in optimized environments) | 1,000+ TPS per chain / 100,000-1MM TPS with parallel chains |
| **Interoperability** | Limited (ERC standards, bridges) | Limited (Integration with other Fabric networks) | High (Native cross-chain with XCMP) |
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