# LITHIUM-ION BATTERY REPORT

### BATTERIES
Battery is a device which is used to store electrical energy in the form of chemical energy and to transform this chemical energy into electrical energy. The construction of battery consists of electrochemical cells, which consists of two electrodes, negative and positive electrode and an electrolyte in the centre. When the two electrodes are connected by a wire, electrons will flow from negative electrode to positive electrode. This flow of electrons is called electricity.The cell is called dead whenever the electrons on the positive and negative electrodes are equivalent to the electrons produced by chemical reactions and in batteries several different chemical reactions are used For instance, the disposable batteries, is a non-rechargeable energy storage device which once dead must be disposed, example Alkaline batteries. Thus, rechargeable batteries are used so regular replacement is not required. The power stored in battery is used to run the electric motor and other electronic units in an electric vehicle. The batteries are recharged from the dedicated charging unit.

### TYPES OF BATTERIES

The types of rechargeable batteries used in Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Other Electric Vehicles [EV] are
1. Lead-Acid battery.
2. Nickel-Cadmium Battery (NiCd or NiCad)
3. Nickel Metal Hydride [NiMH] battery.
4. Lithium-ion [Li-ion] battery.

Each battery type has its own set of advantages and disadvantages selection of these batteries depends on where it is used so that maximum benefit can be obtained.

#### 1. Lead Acid Batteries:
It was invented by Gaston Plante, a French Physician in 1859. To convert chemical energy to electrical energy sponge metallic lead and lead peroxide are used in Lead Acid batteries. It is the oldest and the first rechargeable batteries made available.
Some of its advantages are low cost, long life cycle, and can withstand slow, fast and overcharging, it is available in all sizes and shapes, wide capacity range, low self-discharge- which is lowest among rechargeable batteries, high discharge rate, can be recycled and reused in new batteries.
Some of its disadvantages are energy density is low, poor weight-to-energy ratio, not environmental friendly, as it employs harmful chemicals transportation restrictions on flooded lead acid, limited number of full discharge cycles.

#### 2. Nickel-Cadmium Battery (NiCd or NiCad):
Waldemar Jungner invented Nickel-Cadmium battery in 1899. The rechargeable NiCd battery is composed of nickel hydroxide in the positive electrode, cadmium in the negative and potassium hydroxide as electrolyte. A typical lead-acid battery has cell voltage of roughly 2V, which then steadily comes down as it is depleted whereas NiCad batteries will maintain a steady voltage of 1.2v per cell up till it is nearly completely depleted.
Some of the advantages are low internal resistance, wide range of sizes and performance options are available, high charge and discharge rate, lighter, more compact and higher energy density than lead acid batteries, self-discharge rate is lower than NiMH batteries.
Some of the disadvantages are expensive than lead acid, extremely toxic-causes environmental pollution, high self-discharge, low energy densities compared to newer systems.

#### 3. Nickel Metal Hydride[NiMH] Batteries:
The Nickel Metal Hydride Battery was patented by Standford Ovshinsky, founder of Ovonics. Hydrogen absorbing alloys are used as the active element at the negative electrode and Nickel
-hydroxide at the positive electrode.
Some of the advantages are higher capacity than NiCd, environmentally friendly no toxicity issue, wide operating temperature range, transportation and storage is simple.
Some of the disadvantages are load discharge is high, generates heat during fast charge, sensitive to overcharge.

#### 4. Lithium Ion Battery
NiMH and Li-ion came into view in 1990s and Li-ion became the most promising and the fastest growing battery system. Lithium offers the largest energy density and is the lightest of all the metals. Due to safety issues, attempts at developing Lithium-rechargeable batteries failed. Thus, there was a shift from Lithium to Lithium-ion, it is safer but lower energy density than Lithium metal. The Sony Corporation in 1991 commercialized the first Lithium-ion battery. The electrodes are made of lightweight lithium and carbon. The Lithium-ion has energy density twice that of Ni-Cad Batteries.
One of the reasons for the rapid growth in the development of Li-ion batteries is a huge acceptance of these batteries in cell phones, laptops, and computers. Out of all battery types Li-ion provides the highest density and thus electronic manufacturers prefer these over other battery technologies. The applications are categorized into automotive, medical, aerospace, military, consumer electronics and so on. They are also used in renewable energy areas for energy storage purposes. Other advantages such as long lifespan, low self-discharge, high charge, and discharge cycles have added to the growth of lithium-ion battery market.
The subclass of the lithium-ion battery market is Lithium-Iron-Phosphate [LiFePO4], Lithium- Nickel-Manganese-Cobalt-Oxide [NMC], Lithium-Manganese-Oxide [LMO], Lithium- Nickel-Cobalt-Aluminium-Oxide [NCA], and Lithium-Cobalt-Oxide [LCO] batteries.
3.6 V 2400mAh Lithium-Ion battery has Typical end-of-discharge of 2.8V - 3V and maximum charge voltage of 4.2V 2400mAh. 3.2V 6000mAh LiFePO4 can be charged up to 3.7V and has cut off voltage of 2.7V.

Lithium iron phosphate is used for high power applications. Due to the long cycle life, good thermal stability, upgraded safety, and tolerance features and constant voltage the market demand is increasing in consumer electronics and also in EV sectors.
Due to the high energy density, long life span, and thermal stability, the Lithium-Nickel- Manganese-Cobalt-Oxide [NMC] battery market is predicted to witness the highest growth rate. Researchers are working towards reducing the Cobalt content which would further increase the demand.
Lithium Cobalt Oxide [LCO] is one of the most widely used batteries in applications such as cell-phones, laptops, cameras and so on. Hence has increased the global lithium-ion market share.
One of the developing trends in battery technology is Lithium-Sulphur. Some of the aspects of Lithium Sulphur are sulphur is less expensive compared to Nickel, Aluminium, and Cobalt. They are expected to have high densities compared to other battery technologies.
With the rapid growth in the EV industry, the need for a power revolution is always on topic.

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#### Comparison of energy densities and specific energy of different rechargeable batteries. Reproduced with permission.


#### OTHER BATTERY TECHNOLOGIES

#### 1. Solid state battery:

The difference between a conventional Li-ion battery and a solid-state battery is the electrolyte material. The Solid-state battery employs a solid material for its electrolyte and replaces the liquid or polymer electrolyte. The battery pack thus obtained possess higher energy density and hence reduces the cost per Kw in terms of commercialization purpose. It also has higher durability, longer life and higher charging capabilities.
To find a suitable solid-state material that can conduct electricity efficiently at large scale is a key challenge in this battery tech. The solid state of the electrolyte makes them less conductive than liquid electrolytes as the conductivity of a material is mainly temperature dependant. There are chances of energy density of solid-state batteries to decrease more in cold temperatures when compared to that of a liquid electrolyte battery. Hence, lot of research are being carried out in this technology to overcome such challenges.

#### 2. Aluminium-air battery:

The flow of electrons in this battery is produced due to the reaction of oxygen in the air with aluminium. These batteries possess one of the highest energy densities among all the batteries. An EV equipping such batteries can offer up to eight times the range of an EV with a conventional lithium-ion battery while occupying significantly less space.
These are primary cells, i.e., non-rechargeable. Once the aluminium in the anode is consumed due to the reaction with oxygen at the cathode forming hydrated aluminium oxide, the battery will be incapable of producing electricity and hence require replacement of Anode material. The cost of replacement of the anode material is very high and electrolyte replacement is challenging if conventional electrolytes are used.

****Battery chemistry comparison – The Lithium family****
Fig:Hexagonal spider graph of Lithium Family

The Hexagonal spider graph gives a brief summary of the performance and other characteristics of the Li-ion family.

**Specific energy**
It is the amount of energy that a particular type of cell can store per unit volume. Higher the specific energy graph reads, higher the amount of energy it can store in a particular volume. NCA, NMC and LMO cells have very good specific energy values.

**Safety**
It is one of the most important parameter that is considered before opting a particular battery chemistry. LFP cells are most preferred for applications that require high safety applications although LTO cells rank as the safest choice amongst all they are not a popular choice as they fail to deliver on other crucial parameters.

**Life span**
This refers to the number of charge cycles a particular battery pack can sustain and deliver its rated capacity. One cycle refers to one complete charge and discharge of the battery cell. NCA, LTO and LFP cells are the top performers in this category.

An ideal battery chemistry must have good performance in all categories and the spider graph should be of hexagonal shape. NMC and LFP battery pack performance characteristics match to that of hexagonal graph shape. Hence, NMC & LFP are a popular choice for various applications.

### CHARACTERISTICS OF LI-ION BATTERIES

1. Energy density--> How much energy that can be stored per volume or per weight.

2. Low self discharge--> When kept idle, the rate of self-discharge, a common phenomenon in batteries, is extremely low. In fact, in most cases, it is as good as being negligent.

3. Power density--> The energy that can be delivered per time unit.

4. Battery lifetime-->If you take a pacemaker battery, it cannot be recharged, it can only be used once and then it must be replaced. In this situation, we need a primary battery which can be discharged for a very long time, ideally as long as the lifetime of a human being, Prof. Berg explains. So, this battery must have a high energy density and a long lifetime just for discharging.

5. Options-->One of the biggest advantages of lithium ion batteries is the fact that they come in all shapes and sizes- presenting users with a large number of options to choose from according to their needs.

6. Safety

**If you take a lead-acid battery, for instance, it does not have a high energy density compared to for example a Li-ion cell, but is has quite a long lifetime, and it is very cheap.

### BATTERY CONNECTION

#### Parallel Connection:

In parallel connection increases the current rating keeping the same voltage rating.
Two cells are connected in parallel by connecting positive terminal (+) of battery to positive terminal (+) of the other battery and negative terminal (-) to negative (-) terminal of the other as in figure below.

Parallel connection

For instance, two 3.6V 2400mAh batteries connected in parallel(2p)

2400mAh+2400mAh = 4800 mAh
Thus, 3.6V & 4800mAh

#### Series-Parallel Connection:
By connecting two pairs of two batteries in series and then parallel, then this configuration is called Series-Parallel configuration.

Series-Parallel connection

Some battery packs comprise of a grouping of series and parallel connections as per the application requirement.
For instance, to satisfy the requirement 7.2V and 4800mAh, cells must be connected in 2s2p format where each cell value is 3.6V 2400mah, meaning 2 cells in series (7.2V) and 2 cells in parallel(4800mah).

3.6+3.6=7.2V (2S connection)
2400+2400=4800mAh (2P connection)
Thus, 7.2V & 4.8Ah (2S2P)

It is very important to ensure that the same battery category with equivalent capacity (Ah) and voltage (V) and never to group different battery type and sizes. A weaker cell in the pack will cause an imbalance that is a weaker cell may not break down instantly but there is a chance of getting drained rapidly than the strong cells when connected to the load.

### THE GLOBAL LI-ION BATTERY MARKET EFFECTING FACTORS
The demand for Lithium-ion batteries in the automobile industry is expected to increase with rise in demand for electric vehicles. These batteries have gained popularity among the automobile manufacturers, as they offer an alternative to nickel–metal batteries used in electric vehicles, due to their small size and lightweight. Thus, surge in demand for electrical vehicle (EV), hybrid electric vehicle (HEV), and plug-in hybrid vehicle (PHV) is anticipated to foster the adoption of Lithium-ion batteries, thereby driving the growth of the global market.

### MARKET SIZE
The lithium-ion battery market was valued $36.7 billion in 2019, and is projected to reach $129.3 billion by 2027, at a CAGR of 18.0% from 2020 to 2027.

### GROWTH OF THE BATTERIES

Lithium-ion battery market is projected to reach $129.3 billion by 2027, at a CAGR of 18.0% from 2020 to 2027.

Implementation of stringent government regulations to control increasing pollution levels is further expected to augment the market growth. However, high price of lithium-ion batteries is anticipated to restrain the market growth. On the contrary, higher energy efficiency requirements in technologically updated consumer gadgets are expected to provide expanding lithium-ion batteries market opportunityto the key players.

### KEY TRENDS IN THE LI-ION BATTERY MARKET

Primarily, smartphones, tablets, and laptop/PCs are witnessing higher sales, compared to other electronic gadgets, due to their improved performance coupled with low prices. Battery back-up is considered as one of the important features consumers enquire before buying any tablet, mobile phone, or laptop/PC. As Li-ion batteries provide enhanced battery life, they are majorly preferred in smartphone manufacturing, which, in turn, is expected to enhance the product demand over the coming years.

### CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES IN LI-ION BATTERY COST

The high cost of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) when compared to internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) is a key challenge for their acceptance in the marketplace. The battery pack is often the single most expensive component in an EV due to high material costs and engineering complexity. However, over the past decade, tremendous investment in battery manufacturing capacity and the reduction of cobalt in cathodes has driven an 80% decrease in cost (see Figure 5).(40,41) As this trend continues, total cost of ownership parity between BEVs and ICEVs is closer than ever. However, purchase price parity remains elusive, and thus further cost reduction is needed to improve marketplace acceptance.

### FUTURE DEVELOPMENT TREND OF LI-ION BATTERY

The development of the lithium-ion battery industry has been more than 40 years and getting mature by the day. The year 2015 was a watershed year in the lithium-ion battery industry development.
Before 2015, the application of lithium-ion batteries was dominated by the IT industry; after 2015, The rise of the electric vehicle industry has triggered a violent storm for the lithium-ion battery market.

In response to environmental protection such as global warming, energy-saving, and carbon emission reduction. Automakers around the world have been successively invested in the research and development of electric vehicles, It makes the application of lithium-ion batteries in energy storage systems for electric vehicles are at record highs. Until now, the application of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles has been accounted for 70%.

As one of the pioneers of the application of the lithium-ion battery industry. The 5G technology has been taking off in 2020. The new generation of software communication technology brought new challenges to the performance of lithium-ion batteries.

The biggest feature of the 5G communication technology system is "Network densification", which means that it uses high-frequency and short-wave transmission technology with dense network deployment methods to achieve high bandwidth and high transmission rates. The high frequency and shortwave used in 5G technology need more high energy consumption than 4G systems, According to a rough estimation, the amount of 5G base stations is twice as 4G base stations. It requires larger energy storage equipment. On the other hand, the 5G mobile phone also needs a larger capacity to increase endurance. For the reasons outlined above, the market demand for lithium-ion batteries in the 5G field is promising.

In order to the needs of end-users in the market, the lithium-ion battery manufacturers have always pursued "high capacitance" as their mainstream R&D goal. Not only most users hope that the portable devices they use have a longer battery life cycle, but the electric vehicles and the 5G industry, which can be called the rising stars of future development also need a power system with high stability and long-term power supply. Therefore, the lithium-ion battery products in the next few years will continue to rely on "high capacitance" as the main demand. Electric vehicle batteries are taking the highest capacity of 300~350Wh/Kg as the development goal.

According to the current development trend and the professional teams of all parties are diligently investing in research and development, the day to reach this milestone is not unforeseen. In addition to the pursuit of high capacity, lithium-ion batteries also pay attention to performance such as high cycle life, fast charging, and high safety. If you want to understand the factors that may affect these properties, you must explore the materials used in lithium-ion batteries. The four major components that make up a battery are a cathode, anode, electrolyte, and separator. The largest material of anode is graphite. (at least 90%), the material of the cathode is a lithium-rich metal oxide, and the separator mostly uses PP/PE plastic film as its materials. Compared with the above three components, the proper electrolyte formula can make the function of lithium-ion batteries has the best condition. Therefore, an electrolyte is also one of the R&D focuses of most lithiu

### APPLICATIONS


### BATTERY RECYCLING PROCESS

The two most rational solutions for reusing and recycling used lithium-ion batteries have been second life use and closed-loop recycling processe.


recycling of lithium-ion batteries helps to recover the metals - cobalt, lithium, nickel, and others.
As per industry sources, the cost of recycling a lithium-ion battery in India is about Rs 90-100/ kg.A Lithium-ion battery facility requires high investments in technology for collection, transportation and management of resources while the profile margins are low. It takes at least 5 years to recover costs and start booking profits.

### NEW METHODS ADOPTED IN BATTERY