---
dir: ltr
tags: Biology, College Notes
description: 生物科學通論 4th 考試 (期末考)
image: https://i.imgur.com/s1rmE4c.png
title: 莊曜宇
---
**<font size=7>莊曜宇</font>**
---
>[time=Saturday Jan, 04, 2020]
>[time=Wednesday Jan, 08, 2020]
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# part 1
```
dwd
```
electrophoresis 電泳
plasmids 質體 = cloning vectors 選殖載體
## DNA cloning
{→|restriction enzymes} cut 細菌殖體&人類DNA(用同一個) → produce sticky ends {→|DNA ligase} bond with complementary sticky ends
![](https://i.imgur.com/EBw4jan.png)
<!-- Fig. 20-3-3 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/Y7c2kuQ.png)
original plasmid
: called ++cloning vector++, 帶 DNA進去宿主細胞 then replicate
<!-- Fig. 20-2 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/93SMSOv.png)
genomic library
: 把很多 DNA clone 到噬菌體裡
<!-- Figure 20.5 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/nLrij5e.png)
bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)
: - 被 trimmed down 的 大質體,可 carry 很多 DNA
- 有用在 DNA library
complementary DNA (cDNA) library
: 生物體外,反轉錄 mRNA
<!-- Fig. 20-6-5 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/7mnLq10.png)
nucleic acid hybridization
: - nucleic acid probe
![](https://i.imgur.com/wJq58lq.png)
## ==看不懂==
<!-- Fig. 20-7 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/UA2219G.png)
### expression vector
![](https://i.imgur.com/5AlzefC.png)
### DNA Sequencing
- dideoxy chain termination method
- modified nucleotides: dideoxyribonucleotides (ddNTP)
- each type of ddNTP 有螢光標記,to identify the nucleotide at the end of each DNA fragments
- DNA sequcnce can be read from spectrogram
<!-- Fig. 20-12 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/O4BaNZr.png)
自動定序儀
: ![](https://i.imgur.com/1J5LNfW.png)
### Bioinformatics
![](https://i.imgur.com/V7prdSH.png)
homologous
: 同源
Ortholog
: 異物種同源基因
rodent
: 囓齒動物
DNA mircroarray assays 基因晶片
: compare gene expression
<!-- Fig. 20-15 -->
![](https://i.imgur.com/S6cw8Wk.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/AOGQ0yR.png "看看就好")
![](https://i.imgur.com/obDp94c.png "看看就好")
---
```sequence
amy->ooo:fuckyou
```
hello bitches[^hehehe]
[^hehehe]: just kidding
# part 2
alleles
: 等位基因
gel electrophoresis
: - 凝膠電泳
- separate by size
![](https://i.imgur.com/0OIDsJl.png)
- restriction fragment analysis
: - compare 2 不同 DNA 分子,如等位基因
![](https://i.imgur.com/mxKifAX.png)
## Blotting
Southern Blotting 南方墨點法
: 利用探針偵測由凝膠電泳分離出來的 <font color="FF6000">DNA</font> 片段,尋找含有特定序列的 <font color="FF6000">DNA</font> 片段
![](https://i.imgur.com/cY0AiDn.png)
Northern Blotting 北方墨點法
: 利用探針偵測由凝膠電泳分離出來的 <font color="FF6000">mRNA</font> 片段,尋找含有特定序列的 <font color="FF6000">mRNA</font> 片段
:::spoiler other methods
Western & Eastern Blotting: 蛋白質相關
:::
## Sequencing
![](https://i.imgur.com/5uhlTsn.png)
fold coverage
: 做幾次 sequencing, expressed as 7×, 8×, etc.
### Illumina Sequencing Technology
![](https://i.imgur.com/ErEzIhZ.png)
deblock
Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) 反轉錄 PCR
: mRNA {→|反轉錄} cDNA {→|PCR} DNA 複製
![](https://i.imgur.com/jEseYou.png)
### Mircoarray vs. NGS
![](https://i.imgur.com/CoOQ9gd.png)
de novo
: 從頭定序(_de novo _sequencing),是指不使用參考序列(reference sequence)來組裝定序結果
### 判定基因功用
把基因關掉看看會怎樣
1. 生物體外,clone 突變基因
2. 更改或弄掉這個基因
- 用 [RNAi (RNA interference)][RNAi]
4. 弄回生物體
[RNAi]: #RNAi-RNA-interference
### RNAi (RNA interference)
雙鏈 RNA {→|Dicer 酶} siRNA {→|與其他東西結合} RICS {→|降解 mRNA} 阻斷基因表現
![](https://i.imgur.com/KsvWiEH.png)
siRNA: small interfering RNA
dsRNA: double-stranded RNA
ssRNA: single-stranded RNA
RISC: RNA-induced silencing complex,每個都包含一個 siRNA 和一個不同於 Dicer 的 RNA 酶
degradation: 降解 (分解)
exonuclease: 核酸外切酶
### genetic markers
- Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, 單核苷酸多型性)
- 加上限制酶 → 不同長度的 DNA 片段 — restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP, 限制片段長度多型性)
- 標記治病等位基因 → test genetic disorders
Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, 單核苷酸多型性)
: 單個核苷酸—A,T,C或G的改變而引起的DNA序列的改變
restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP, 限制片段長度多型性)
: 每個個體的酶切位點之間的距離會有差距,這樣限制性片段的長度有區別,不同個體的某個條帶的位置也會不同(也就是「多態性」)。這樣就能從遺傳水平上區分不同個體。RFLP也可以揭示不同個體之間的遺傳關係,因爲孩子從父母處繼承了染色體。這種技術也可以用來判斷各個種的生物之間的關係。
## animal cloning
Dolly sheep
: from 乳腺細胞細胞核
```graphviz
digraph{
白面母羊乳房細胞核與黑面母羊去核卵 -> 體外培養 -> 移到另一隻黑面母羊子宮
}
```
白面母羊乳房細胞核+黑面母羊去核卵 → 體外培養 → 移到另一隻黑面母羊子宮
![](https://i.imgur.com/aK1xyVk.png)
:::danger
😱 外觀 & 行為不是一定一樣 (如同卵雙胞胎)
:::
- 大部分複製胚胎都無法存活到出生
- 很多表觀遺傳變化(acetylation 乙醯化 & methylation 甲基化)都要先被 reversed
ES cell
: - embryonic stem cell 胚胎幹細胞
- 可 skin cell → ES cell,稱為 iPS cell, induced pluripotent cells, 誘導性多功能幹細胞)
![](https://i.imgur.com/f8W6r0U.png)
### gene therapy 基因治療
- 改變缺陷基因
![](https://i.imgur.com/vaN8GuV.png)
leukemia 白血病
可以讓 host cell 主動分泌出叫他製作的 protein
→ 不需純化過程,簡化 insulin, human growth hormones, and vaccines 等的製造
STR
: - short tandem repeats 短序重複序列
- 不同人(除同卵)之間具同 STR 的機率極低
→ 用來鑑定各種關係
# Part 3 基因體學,蛋白體學
![](https://i.imgur.com/4h3VnUY.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/NiOlBSb.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/0cBRNOh.png)
physical map
: distance between genetic markers
haploid
: 單倍體
shotgun DNA sequencing (霰彈槍定序)
: - Randomly sequence fragments {→|computer} 連續 sequence
- 不需要全部 mapping 但可能定到之前定過的
extranuclear DNA (核外 DNA): 葉綠體、粒線體
真核基因組有重複序列
coding region - only 2% of our genome
![](https://i.imgur.com/F0ABsCw.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/hk7NaXH.png)
phenotype
: 表型
More Complex Organisms Have Decreased Gene Density
![](https://i.imgur.com/nFlXpzK.png)
morphological
: 型態的
2D gel electrophoresis 二維電泳
: 把蛋白質放進 pH gradient,蛋白質分子會根據自己的帶電跑到能讓自己 0 帶電處
![](https://i.imgur.com/GM3IPX6.png)
mass spectroscopy 質譜儀
: 測量分解前&分解(為小段)後之 peptide → 判定 possible codon sequences that could encode such peptide
![](https://i.imgur.com/TRtH7Ca.png)
### Proteomes 蛋白體
![](https://i.imgur.com/MZV5FnA.png)
比 genomes 多,因為:
- 1 pre-mRNA → many ver.
- 專一性 (應對特定細胞、環境)
- modification
- phosphorylation (磷酸化), methylation(甲基化), acetylation (ishi 化)
![](https://i.imgur.com/aMh9Dir.png)
# part 4 細胞週期
正常細胞分裂 50 次後死亡因為 ++端粒 (tolemere)++ 在 DNA 複製時縮短
apoptosis 細胞自噬
: 胚胎發育過程 or 受損細胞
癌細胞不理一般細胞週期
![](https://i.imgur.com/5tIJIPX.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/OowPxty.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/u4jgYWK.png)
mitosis
: 有絲分裂
### 兩種蛋白 involved
- cyclin
: 細胞週期蛋白
- Cdk, cyclin-dependent kinases
: controlled by cyclin so 會波動
MPF, maturation-promoting factor
: - cyclin-Cdk complex
- G~2~ → M
![](https://i.imgur.com/cs42vWO.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/00IX5VL.png)
platelet
: 血小板
signs at checkpoint
: - internal signs 如東西還沒接好
e.g. kinetochores (著絲粒) not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase
- external signs 如促進分化的蛋白質
e.g. PDGF 促進分化 fibrolast cell
![](https://i.imgur.com/QikRVaV.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/zYZY6em.png)
## 癌症
### 腫瘤 tumor
- benign tumor 良性腫瘤
: 有膜、非侵入性、不轉移(metastases)
- malignant tumor 惡性腫瘤
: 無膜 (散落)、侵入周遭組織、會轉移
### p53 gene
p53 蛋白在 G~1~ 檢查點偵測到受損 DNA → 停止分裂
無法修復 → 細胞自噬
p53 失去功能 → 受損細胞繼續分裂 → 可能癌變
![](https://i.imgur.com/5mtpria.png)
carcinogens
: 致癌
# Part 5 突變
### 突變模式
1. change base sequence
2. add/remove nucleotide(s)
![](https://i.imgur.com/k4kwStU.png)
### 突變表觀形式
1. silent/neutral mutation 緘默突變
- 不改變胺基酸序列
![](https://i.imgur.com/0LrUY80.png)
2. missense mutation 錯義突變
- 改變==一個==胺基酸 (in 多肽鏈)
- 若改變的胺基酸化學性質相似 → neutral
- e.g. sickle-cell anemia 鐮刀型貧血症
![](https://i.imgur.com/Qzm0QHA.png)
3. nonsense mutation 無錯義突變
- normal codon → start/termination codon
:arrow_down:
被截斷的 polypeptide
![](https://i.imgur.com/6Px9ker.png)
4. frameshift mutation 移碼突變
- 加減非 3 的倍數的 nucleotides
(become another amino acid sequence if 3:star:)
### coding sequences 外的基因突變
- **Promoter**
- Up promoter mutations or down promoter mutations
- **Transcriptional response element/operator site**
- May alter regulation of transcription
- **Splice junctions**
- Mutations at the boundaries between introns and exons can prevent proper splicing
- **Translational response elements**
- May prevent proper translational regulation
### germ-line mutation (生殖系突變) or somatic cell mutation (體細胞突變)
![](https://i.imgur.com/ctECDd7.png)
### Spontaneous matation or induced mutations
![](https://i.imgur.com/X9X4UEg.png)
Spontaneous: 自然錯誤
induced: 環境因素(物理 or 化學 mutagen)
![](https://i.imgur.com/WdHkndb.png)
mutagen
: - disrupt pairing
- modify nucleotide structure
- 用鹼基類似物
- 烷化鹼基
![](https://i.imgur.com/YUCdUrh.png)
- 干擾複製
![](https://i.imgur.com/U4UNnYv.png)
- 游離輻射
- 強大穿透力
- X ray & γ ray
- delete base (1 or both DNA strand)
- 非游離輻射
- 只能穿透表面
- UV ray
- 造成 thymine dimer 的 gap or 錯誤 base 配對
![](https://i.imgur.com/Or9KICn.png)
### 安姆氏實驗 Ames test
- 用因為突變而無法合成 histidine(組氨酸) 的 Salmonella typhimurium(沙門氏菌)
- 要有 histidine, bacteria 才會生長
一盤不加 mutagen 一盤加
![](https://i.imgur.com/cbCGZip.png)
加的那盤很快就突變
### DNA repair
- direct repair
- enzyme removes modification then Photoreactivation(光活化) repair
![](https://i.imgur.com/2aR21Gt.png)
- 取代 DNA strand section (較常見)
- base excision(切除) repair
![](https://i.imgur.com/bxR3RPm.png)
- nucleotide excision repair (最常見的)
![](https://i.imgur.com/AYH3ogn.png)
- methyl-directed mismatch (base 配對錯誤) repair
![](https://i.imgur.com/sh0bqo5.png)
- double strand break repair
90% 癌症與遺傳無關
carcinogens
: 致癌物
### 癌症流程
```graphviz
digraph{
一個細胞 -> 突變 -> overgrow -> benign_or_precancerous_tumor -> malignant -> invasive -> metastatic
}
```
oncogene 致癌基因
tummor-suppressor gene 抑癌基因
mutation 可能造成上兩基因 overactive/eliminated
oncogene 可一直 keep 是否生長 signal on
![](https://i.imgur.com/heIh2rb.png)
左: 自己做 signal;右: 抑制蛋白的轉譯因子不見
proto-oncogene
: oncogene that is originally a normal gene (mutation)
![](https://i.imgur.com/tKjx8o7.png)
- missense mutation 錯義突變:一個胺基酸改變)
![](https://i.imgur.com/tTUJ5NS.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/1dGq8Th.png)
- gene amplification 基因放大:重複複製基因
![](https://i.imgur.com/4fMF1FW.png)
- Chromosomal translocation 染色體轉位:2 不同染色體錯誤結合
![](https://i.imgur.com/webWSq7.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/as3EUcy.png)
- Retroviral insertions 反轉錄病毒插入:
- proto-oncogene 剛好被 overexpressed → cancer
![](https://i.imgur.com/MTYtgjP.png)
- or virus carries oncogene
viral
: 病毒的
### 抑癌基因 tumor-suppressor gene
1. checkpoint protein - 在細胞週期中檢查狀況
: - [cyclin & Cdk 參與細胞週期](#兩種蛋白-involved)
- can stop activated cyclin-cdk complex (which peaks in M 期 i.e. 細胞分裂期)
- 50% 人類癌症與 p53 gene 缺陷有關
- 有 checkpoint gene 缺陷不會怎樣,但較容易的癌症
2. Rb gene - 抑制細胞分裂 (防止過度分裂)
: - 負回饋 E2F (who helps G~1~ → S)
- binds E2F → 抑制
- 缺陷 → E2F always active
![](https://i.imgur.com/FEG78yW.png)
### 視網膜母細胞瘤 retinoblastoma
觸發條件:retina 細胞內 2 個突變
人有一對 Rb gene from 雙親
正常 gene:unlikely to have 2 mutation in same cell
已有一個 mutant gene from 遺傳:likely to occur early
失去抑癌基因:mutation、失去染色體、不正常 CpG 甲基化 near promoter
![](https://i.imgur.com/eR405xm.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/YHFMIOw.png)
### 癌症治療
![](https://i.imgur.com/gfwN8iO.png)
![](https://i.imgur.com/0bzN30o.png)