--- dir: ltr tags: Biology, College Notes description: 生物科學通論 4th 考試 (期末考) image: https://i.imgur.com/s1rmE4c.png title: 莊曜宇 --- **<font size=7>莊曜宇</font>** --- >[time=Saturday Jan, 04, 2020] >[time=Wednesday Jan, 08, 2020] <iframe width="500" height="150" scrolling="no" frameborder="no" allow="autoplay" src="https://w.soundcloud.com/player/?url=https%3A//api.soundcloud.com/tracks/668254808&color=%23eb734c&auto_play=false&hide_related=false&show_comments=false&show_user=true&show_reposts=false&show_teaser=false&visual=true"></iframe> <!-- {%hackmd hackmd-vertical-writing-theme %} --> <!-- {%hackmd hackmd-dark-theme %} --> <!-- {%hackmd BkVfcTxlQ %} --> <!-- {%hackmd MtJAQXhTRb2O21KeunhMTw %} --> # part 1 ``` dwd ``` electrophoresis 電泳 plasmids 質體 = cloning vectors 選殖載體 ## DNA cloning {→|restriction enzymes} cut 細菌殖體&人類DNA(用同一個) → produce sticky ends {→|DNA ligase} bond with complementary sticky ends ![](https://i.imgur.com/EBw4jan.png) <!-- Fig. 20-3-3 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/Y7c2kuQ.png) original plasmid : called ++cloning vector++, 帶 DNA進去宿主細胞 then replicate <!-- Fig. 20-2 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/93SMSOv.png) genomic library : 把很多 DNA clone 到噬菌體裡 <!-- Figure 20.5 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/nLrij5e.png) bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC) : - 被 trimmed down 的 大質體,可 carry 很多 DNA - 有用在 DNA library complementary DNA (cDNA) library : 生物體外,反轉錄 mRNA <!-- Fig. 20-6-5 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/7mnLq10.png) nucleic acid hybridization : - nucleic acid probe ![](https://i.imgur.com/wJq58lq.png) ## ==看不懂== <!-- Fig. 20-7 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/UA2219G.png) ### expression vector ![](https://i.imgur.com/5AlzefC.png) ### DNA Sequencing - dideoxy chain termination method - modified nucleotides: dideoxyribonucleotides (ddNTP) - each type of ddNTP 有螢光標記,to identify the nucleotide at the end of each DNA fragments - DNA sequcnce can be read from spectrogram <!-- Fig. 20-12 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/O4BaNZr.png) 自動定序儀 : ![](https://i.imgur.com/1J5LNfW.png) ### Bioinformatics ![](https://i.imgur.com/V7prdSH.png) homologous : 同源 Ortholog : 異物種同源基因 rodent : 囓齒動物 DNA mircroarray assays 基因晶片 : compare gene expression <!-- Fig. 20-15 --> ![](https://i.imgur.com/S6cw8Wk.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/AOGQ0yR.png "看看就好") ![](https://i.imgur.com/obDp94c.png "看看就好") --- ```sequence amy->ooo:fuckyou ``` hello bitches[^hehehe] [^hehehe]: just kidding # part 2 alleles : 等位基因 gel electrophoresis : - 凝膠電泳 - separate by size ![](https://i.imgur.com/0OIDsJl.png) - restriction fragment analysis : - compare 2 不同 DNA 分子,如等位基因 ![](https://i.imgur.com/mxKifAX.png) ## Blotting Southern Blotting 南方墨點法 : 利用探針偵測由凝膠電泳分離出來的 <font color="FF6000">DNA</font> 片段,尋找含有特定序列的 <font color="FF6000">DNA</font> 片段 ![](https://i.imgur.com/cY0AiDn.png) Northern Blotting 北方墨點法 : 利用探針偵測由凝膠電泳分離出來的 <font color="FF6000">mRNA</font> 片段,尋找含有特定序列的 <font color="FF6000">mRNA</font> 片段 :::spoiler other methods Western & Eastern Blotting: 蛋白質相關 ::: ## Sequencing ![](https://i.imgur.com/5uhlTsn.png) fold coverage : 做幾次 sequencing, expressed as 7×, 8×, etc. ### Illumina Sequencing Technology ![](https://i.imgur.com/ErEzIhZ.png) deblock Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) 反轉錄 PCR : mRNA {→|反轉錄} cDNA {→|PCR} DNA 複製 ![](https://i.imgur.com/jEseYou.png) ### Mircoarray vs. NGS ![](https://i.imgur.com/CoOQ9gd.png) de novo : 從頭定序(_de novo _sequencing),是指不使用參考序列(reference sequence)來組裝定序結果 ### 判定基因功用 把基因關掉看看會怎樣 1. 生物體外,clone 突變基因 2. 更改或弄掉這個基因 - 用 [RNAi (RNA interference)][RNAi] 4. 弄回生物體 [RNAi]: #RNAi-RNA-interference ### RNAi (RNA interference) 雙鏈 RNA {→|Dicer 酶} siRNA {→|與其他東西結合} RICS {→|降解 mRNA} 阻斷基因表現 ![](https://i.imgur.com/KsvWiEH.png) siRNA: small interfering RNA dsRNA: double-stranded RNA ssRNA: single-stranded RNA RISC: RNA-induced silencing complex,每個都包含一個 siRNA 和一個不同於 Dicer 的 RNA 酶 degradation: 降解 (分解) exonuclease: 核酸外切酶 ### genetic markers - Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, 單核苷酸多型性) - 加上限制酶 → 不同長度的 DNA 片段 — restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP, 限制片段長度多型性) - 標記治病等位基因 → test genetic disorders Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs, 單核苷酸多型性) : 單個核苷酸—A,T,C或G的改變而引起的DNA序列的改變 restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP, 限制片段長度多型性) : 每個個體的酶切位點之間的距離會有差距,這樣限制性片段的長度有區別,不同個體的某個條帶的位置也會不同(也就是「多態性」)。這樣就能從遺傳水平上區分不同個體。RFLP也可以揭示不同個體之間的遺傳關係,因爲孩子從父母處繼承了染色體。這種技術也可以用來判斷各個種的生物之間的關係。 ## animal cloning Dolly sheep : from 乳腺細胞細胞核 ```graphviz digraph{ 白面母羊乳房細胞核與黑面母羊去核卵 -> 體外培養 -> 移到另一隻黑面母羊子宮 } ``` 白面母羊乳房細胞核+黑面母羊去核卵 → 體外培養 → 移到另一隻黑面母羊子宮 ![](https://i.imgur.com/aK1xyVk.png) :::danger 😱 外觀 & 行為不是一定一樣 (如同卵雙胞胎) ::: - 大部分複製胚胎都無法存活到出生 - 很多表觀遺傳變化(acetylation 乙醯化 & methylation 甲基化)都要先被 reversed ES cell : - embryonic stem cell 胚胎幹細胞 - 可 skin cell → ES cell,稱為 iPS cell, induced pluripotent cells, 誘導性多功能幹細胞) ![](https://i.imgur.com/f8W6r0U.png) ### gene therapy 基因治療 - 改變缺陷基因 ![](https://i.imgur.com/vaN8GuV.png) leukemia 白血病 可以讓 host cell 主動分泌出叫他製作的 protein → 不需純化過程,簡化 insulin, human growth hormones, and vaccines 等的製造 STR : - short tandem repeats 短序重複序列 - 不同人(除同卵)之間具同 STR 的機率極低 → 用來鑑定各種關係 # Part 3 基因體學,蛋白體學 ![](https://i.imgur.com/4h3VnUY.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/NiOlBSb.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/0cBRNOh.png) physical map : distance between genetic markers haploid : 單倍體 shotgun DNA sequencing (霰彈槍定序) : - Randomly sequence fragments {→|computer} 連續 sequence - 不需要全部 mapping 但可能定到之前定過的 extranuclear DNA (核外 DNA): 葉綠體、粒線體 真核基因組有重複序列 coding region - only 2% of our genome ![](https://i.imgur.com/F0ABsCw.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/hk7NaXH.png) phenotype : 表型 More Complex Organisms Have Decreased Gene Density ![](https://i.imgur.com/nFlXpzK.png) morphological : 型態的 2D gel electrophoresis 二維電泳 : 把蛋白質放進 pH gradient,蛋白質分子會根據自己的帶電跑到能讓自己 0 帶電處 ![](https://i.imgur.com/GM3IPX6.png) mass spectroscopy 質譜儀 : 測量分解前&分解(為小段)後之 peptide → 判定 possible codon sequences that could encode such peptide ![](https://i.imgur.com/TRtH7Ca.png) ### Proteomes 蛋白體 ![](https://i.imgur.com/MZV5FnA.png) 比 genomes 多,因為: - 1 pre-mRNA → many ver. - 專一性 (應對特定細胞、環境) - modification - phosphorylation (磷酸化), methylation(甲基化), acetylation (ishi 化) ![](https://i.imgur.com/aMh9Dir.png) # part 4 細胞週期 正常細胞分裂 50 次後死亡因為 ++端粒 (tolemere)++ 在 DNA 複製時縮短 apoptosis 細胞自噬 : 胚胎發育過程 or 受損細胞 癌細胞不理一般細胞週期 ![](https://i.imgur.com/5tIJIPX.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/OowPxty.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/u4jgYWK.png) mitosis : 有絲分裂 ### 兩種蛋白 involved - cyclin : 細胞週期蛋白 - Cdk, cyclin-dependent kinases : controlled by cyclin so 會波動 MPF, maturation-promoting factor : - cyclin-Cdk complex - G~2~ → M ![](https://i.imgur.com/cs42vWO.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/00IX5VL.png) platelet : 血小板 signs at checkpoint : - internal signs 如東西還沒接好 e.g. kinetochores (著絲粒) not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase - external signs 如促進分化的蛋白質 e.g. PDGF 促進分化 fibrolast cell ![](https://i.imgur.com/QikRVaV.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/zYZY6em.png) ## 癌症 ### 腫瘤 tumor - benign tumor 良性腫瘤 : 有膜、非侵入性、不轉移(metastases) - malignant tumor 惡性腫瘤 : 無膜 (散落)、侵入周遭組織、會轉移 ### p53 gene p53 蛋白在 G~1~ 檢查點偵測到受損 DNA → 停止分裂 無法修復 → 細胞自噬 p53 失去功能 → 受損細胞繼續分裂 → 可能癌變 ![](https://i.imgur.com/5mtpria.png) carcinogens : 致癌 # Part 5 突變 ### 突變模式 1. change base sequence 2. add/remove nucleotide(s) ![](https://i.imgur.com/k4kwStU.png) ### 突變表觀形式 1. silent/neutral mutation 緘默突變 - 不改變胺基酸序列 ![](https://i.imgur.com/0LrUY80.png) 2. missense mutation 錯義突變 - 改變==一個==胺基酸 (in 多肽鏈) - 若改變的胺基酸化學性質相似 → neutral - e.g. sickle-cell anemia 鐮刀型貧血症 ![](https://i.imgur.com/Qzm0QHA.png) 3. nonsense mutation 無錯義突變 - normal codon → start/termination codon :arrow_down: 被截斷的 polypeptide ![](https://i.imgur.com/6Px9ker.png) 4. frameshift mutation 移碼突變 - 加減非 3 的倍數的 nucleotides (become another amino acid sequence if 3:star:) ### coding sequences 外的基因突變 - **Promoter** - Up promoter mutations or down promoter mutations - **Transcriptional response element/operator site** - May alter regulation of transcription - **Splice junctions** - Mutations at the boundaries between introns and exons can prevent proper splicing - **Translational response elements** - May prevent proper translational regulation ### germ-line mutation (生殖系突變) or somatic cell mutation (體細胞突變) ![](https://i.imgur.com/ctECDd7.png) ### Spontaneous matation or induced mutations ![](https://i.imgur.com/X9X4UEg.png) Spontaneous: 自然錯誤 induced: 環境因素(物理 or 化學 mutagen) ![](https://i.imgur.com/WdHkndb.png) mutagen : - disrupt pairing - modify nucleotide structure - 用鹼基類似物 - 烷化鹼基 ![](https://i.imgur.com/YUCdUrh.png) - 干擾複製 ![](https://i.imgur.com/U4UNnYv.png) - 游離輻射 - 強大穿透力 - X ray & γ ray - delete base (1 or both DNA strand) - 非游離輻射 - 只能穿透表面 - UV ray - 造成 thymine dimer 的 gap or 錯誤 base 配對 ![](https://i.imgur.com/Or9KICn.png) ### 安姆氏實驗 Ames test - 用因為突變而無法合成 histidine(組氨酸) 的 Salmonella typhimurium(沙門氏菌) - 要有 histidine, bacteria 才會生長 一盤不加 mutagen 一盤加 ![](https://i.imgur.com/cbCGZip.png) 加的那盤很快就突變 ### DNA repair - direct repair - enzyme removes modification then Photoreactivation(光活化) repair ![](https://i.imgur.com/2aR21Gt.png) - 取代 DNA strand section (較常見) - base excision(切除) repair ![](https://i.imgur.com/bxR3RPm.png) - nucleotide excision repair (最常見的) ![](https://i.imgur.com/AYH3ogn.png) - methyl-directed mismatch (base 配對錯誤) repair ![](https://i.imgur.com/sh0bqo5.png) - double strand break repair 90% 癌症與遺傳無關 carcinogens : 致癌物 ### 癌症流程 ```graphviz digraph{ 一個細胞 -> 突變 -> overgrow -> benign_or_precancerous_tumor -> malignant -> invasive -> metastatic } ``` oncogene 致癌基因 tummor-suppressor gene 抑癌基因 mutation 可能造成上兩基因 overactive/eliminated oncogene 可一直 keep 是否生長 signal on ![](https://i.imgur.com/heIh2rb.png) 左: 自己做 signal;右: 抑制蛋白的轉譯因子不見 proto-oncogene : oncogene that is originally a normal gene (mutation) ![](https://i.imgur.com/tKjx8o7.png) - missense mutation 錯義突變:一個胺基酸改變) ![](https://i.imgur.com/tTUJ5NS.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/1dGq8Th.png) - gene amplification 基因放大:重複複製基因 ![](https://i.imgur.com/4fMF1FW.png) - Chromosomal translocation 染色體轉位:2 不同染色體錯誤結合 ![](https://i.imgur.com/webWSq7.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/as3EUcy.png) - Retroviral insertions 反轉錄病毒插入: - proto-oncogene 剛好被 overexpressed → cancer ![](https://i.imgur.com/MTYtgjP.png) - or virus carries oncogene viral : 病毒的 ### 抑癌基因 tumor-suppressor gene 1. checkpoint protein - 在細胞週期中檢查狀況 : - [cyclin & Cdk 參與細胞週期](#兩種蛋白-involved) - can stop activated cyclin-cdk complex (which peaks in M 期 i.e. 細胞分裂期) - 50% 人類癌症與 p53 gene 缺陷有關 - 有 checkpoint gene 缺陷不會怎樣,但較容易的癌症 2. Rb gene - 抑制細胞分裂 (防止過度分裂) : - 負回饋 E2F (who helps G~1~ → S) - binds E2F → 抑制 - 缺陷 → E2F always active ![](https://i.imgur.com/FEG78yW.png) ### 視網膜母細胞瘤 retinoblastoma 觸發條件:retina 細胞內 2 個突變 人有一對 Rb gene from 雙親 正常 gene:unlikely to have 2 mutation in same cell 已有一個 mutant gene from 遺傳:likely to occur early 失去抑癌基因:mutation、失去染色體、不正常 CpG 甲基化 near promoter ![](https://i.imgur.com/eR405xm.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/YHFMIOw.png) ### 癌症治療 ![](https://i.imgur.com/gfwN8iO.png) ![](https://i.imgur.com/0bzN30o.png)