# Thesaurus

| Russian term | English term | Definition | Examples |
| ------------------------- |:----------------------------- | ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | ------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
| Естественный язык | Natural language | Any language that evolved naturally in humans with no consicous planning | English, Russian, etc
| Искусственный язык | Constructed language | A language that has been developed by humans for specific purposes| Esperanto, Klingon
| Языковой знак | (Linguistic) sign (semiotics) | Any linguistic sign whose main property is the ability to convey some meaning | A morpheme, a word, a sentence |
| Синхрония | Synchrony | A viewpoint in linguistic analysis that considers a language at one exact moment | |
| Диахрония | Diachrony | Another viewpoint that takes history into account while analyzing a language | |
| Означаемое / означающее | Signified and signifier | In semiotics, signified pertains to the plane of content and refers to the concept that is being desribed. Signifier pertains to the plane of expression and refers to the form (graphic or audio)|
| Жестовый язык | Sign laguage | A communication system of gestures and signs used by deaf people |
| Язык тела (жестов) | Body language | Non-verbal communication (signals)
| Корпус | Text corpus (corpora - pl) | A collection of written material in a certain language | COCA, НКРЯ
| Языковая семья | Language family | A group of related languages | Indo-European family |
| Заимствование | Loanword | A word that has been adopted from another language with little to no change in surface structure | café
| Когнаты | Cognates | Words in two or more languages that share origin |
| Ареальная лингвистика | Aerial linguistics (dialectology?) | A brach of linguistics that studies languages and their features across different territories (dialectology)|
| Список Сводеша |Swadesh list | A list suggested by an Mossis Swadesh, an American linguist, to estimate how the languages are related. The list contains basic essential vocabulary.
| Континуум | Dialect continuum | A chain of mutually connected dialects with minimal differences. |
| Изолированный язык |Language isolates| Languages that do not belong to any of the existing families / groups, unclassifiable languages|Korean, Basque |
| Дивергенция | Divergence - **different meaning!** - a type of grammaticalization detection | Расхождение языков | |
| Конвергенция | Convergence | A linguistic change that makes languages similar | Chinese, Thai and Vietnamese |
| Узуальная норма (узус) | Usus | Commonly used language structures | |
| Пиджин | Pidgin | A form of linguistic convergence that takes place in certain soci situations (slavery, trade, etc) | Butler English, Bamboo English |
| Переключение кода | Code-switching | Linguistic occurrence of a speaker alternating between two or more languages while speaking | |
| Лингвистическая типология | Linguistic Typology | A field of linguistics that classifies laguages into certain groups according to different structural features|Lexical Typology, Grammatical Typology | |
| Языковые универсалии | Linguistic universal | A pattern that occurs systematically in certain languages | Если в языке есть двойственное число, то в нем есть и множественное число |
| Языковые фреквенталии | Language frequentalia| A pattern that occurs frequently across languages |
| Циркумфикс| Circumfix | A type of affix that has two parts, one being placed in the start of the word and another in the end | под-берез-овик
|Алломорфия| Allomorphy | A situation in which a morpheme (or another linguistic item) has different phonetic realizations with no change in meaning |
| Граммема | Grammeme | A value of a grammatical category | singular and plural - grammemes of category of number
| Словоизменение | Inflection | A process of changing the form of the word to express a grammatical category. Does not change the part of speech | a cat - cats
| Словообразование | Derivation | A process of deriving a word from the root of another word, mostly by adding affixes | study - student
| Супплетивизм | Suppletion | A use of multiple different roots for word forms of the same word | be - am - is - are
| Синкретизм | Syncretism | An occurrence of two or more functionally different items being identical in form | you sg and you pl
| Аффикс | Affix | A morpheme that is attached to the root of the word to form a new word or a word form | -ness, -ment, un-, dis-
| Нулевой аффикс | Null morpheme | A morpheme with no phonetic form |
| Инфикс | Инфикс | An affix incorporated into the word stem | Sanskrit -n- in vindami "I know" as contrasted with vid "to know"|
| Флексия | Inflection (as a process) | A morpheme that changes the grammatical function of a word |
| Парадигма | Paradigm | The complete set of all word forms of a certain lexeme | Парадигма склонения слова "конь"|
| Дефектная парадигма | Defective paradigm | A missing word form in a complete set of regular forms | "Победю"
| Лексема | Lexeme | One abstract piece of meaning (approximately the same as a root of a word that can take different inflections)
| Вид (аспект) | Grammatical aspect | A grammatical category of a verb that shows how a denoted action extends over time
| Перфективация | Perfectivation | Formation of perfective verbs (complete action)
| Имперфективация | Imperfectivation | Formation of imperfective verbs (incomplete, continuous action)
| Согласование | Agreement | A type of inflection that changes one word so that it agrees with another word that it relates to in a given context | красн*ая* роза - красн*ой* розы
| Падеж | Grammatical case | A system of categorizing nouns by the type of relationship they have to the other words |
| Singularia tantum / Pluralia tantum | ~ | Nouns that are only used in singular / plural | information / scissors
| Род | Grammatical gender | A system of categorizing words by either feminine, masculine or neutral |
| Дистрибуция | Distrubution | A set of all contexts where a certain linguistic element is used (frequency)
| Синтаксическая дистрибуция | Syntactic distribution | The set of syntactic environments in which an expression can occur
| Степени сравнения | Degrees of comparison | Different forms of adjectives (comparative and superlative) used to compare things |
| Время | Grammatical tense | A grammatical category of a verb that expresses the time reference | PRS, FUT, PST
| Наклонение | Grammatical mood | A grammatical feature of verbs used to express modality|
| Изъявительное наклонение | Indicative Mood | A form of a verb used to state a fact or as a question |
| Повелительное наклонение | Imperative Mood | A form that a verb takes to make direct requests or orders |
| Сослагательное наклонение | Conjunctive / Subjuntive | A form of a verb that indicates certain things are unreal (doubt, desire, possibility, opinion, etc)|
| Финитные глаголы | Finite verbs | Verbs inflected for number and person | go, goes, went
| Нефинитные глаголы | Nonfinite verbs | Verb forms that do not show number, person or gender and cannot work as the only verb in a sentence | go, going, gone |
| Семантическая роль | Semantic role (thematic relation) | In a sentence, a role each noun phrase plays in relation to the verb |
| Агенс | Agent | Performs the action deliberately | **Daria** studies linguistics
| Пациенс | Patient | An object undergoing the action | The academic force of linguistics crushed **my spirit**
| Тема | Theme | An object undergoing the action and keeping its state| Daria studies **linguistics**
| Результат | - | A result of an action or process | Daria has compiled **a perfect thesaurus**
| Эффектор | ???
| Экспериенцер | Experiencer | A thing or a person that receives sensory input | **Daria** has been distressed by linguistics|
| Стимул | Stimulus | An entity that triggers a feeling | Daria feels anxious about **her grade in linguisitcs**
| Посессор/обладатель | Possessor? | Self-explanatory | **Daria's** thesaurus
| Обладаемое | Possessee | Self-explanatory | Daria's **thesaurus**
| Адресат | Addressee? | An entity that a change in ownership is directed from | **Daria** sent her thesaurus to the TA
| Реципиент | Recipient | An entity that a change in ownership is directed into | Daria sent her thesaurus to **the TA**
| Актант (аргумент) | Argument | The collective term for object and subject arguments in a sentence. Adds some meaning to the predicate | They wished him **a safe trip**
| Сирконстант (адъюнкт) | Adjunct | A phrase or a clause that can be removed from the sentence leaving its structure intact | I have **completely** forgotten about thesaurus.
| Диатеза | Diathesis | A pattern of syntactic features that a verb is usually associated |
| Залог | Voice | Voice of a verb refers to the relationship between the action that is being described and the subject(s) or object(s) associated with it | Active and passive
| Актантная деривация | - | A grammatical transformation that changes the semantic interpretation of the sentence |
| Декаузатив | Anticausative verb | The anticausative verbs demonstrates an event influencing an object. The single argument is itself a patient | Дверь открылась. The ship sank.
| Пассив | Passive voice | In a sentence, the subject is affected by an action (the subject is the theme or patient) | My sanity **has been compromised** by linguistics.
| Каузатив | Causative | Causative is used when the subject causes the predicate do something | I had my hair dyed pink.
| Одноместный (одновалентный) предикат (глагол) | One-place predicate (verb) | An intransitive verb that can only take one argument | He sleeps.
| Рефлексив | Reflexivity | A property of sentences when two arguments of the same verb have the same reference (the agent coincides with the patient) | Даша учится
| Системы кодирования агенса и пациенса | Morphosyntactic alignment | A system for determining the relationship between arguments of a verb
| Аккузативная стратегия | Nominative-accusative alignment | The single argument of an intransitive verb ("I" in the sentence "I walked.") behaves grammatically like the agent of a transitive verb ("I" in the sentence "I saw them.") but differently from the object of a transitive verb ("me" in the sentence “they saw me.") |
| Эргативная стратегия | Ergative-absolutive alignment | The subject of the intransitive verb behaves like the object of the transitive verb (the subject is marked for a transitive verb) | Basque: Martin etorri da. (Martin has arrived) vs Martin**ek** Diego ikusi du. (Martin has seen Diego)
| Активная стратегия | Active-stative alignment | The argument of intransitive verbs behaves like the agent of transitives (like English) in some cases and like a direct object in other cases. Depends on speaker's aim (deliberate action or empathy) | Georgian: Mariam**ma** imğera "Mary (-ma) sang", <br /> Mariam**ma** c'erili dac'era "Mary (-ma) wrote the letter (-i)", <br/> Maria**mi** iq'o Tbilisši revolutsiamde "Mary (-i) was in Tbilisi up to the revolution"
| Нейтральная стратегия | - | No demarkation between semantic roles |
| Эвиденциальность | Evidentiality | A grammatical category that indicates how evident the statement is |
| Репортатив | Reportative evidential | Denotes that the speaker is reporting the information they have been told |
| Инферентив | Inferential evidential | Denotes that the information has been inferred from some kind of evidence |
| Визуальная засвидетельствованность | Witness (visual) evidential | Denotes that the speaker directly observed the information (by vision or hearing) |
| Аудиальная засвидетельствованность | Auditory evidential | Denotes that the speaker has heard the evidence |
| Референция | Reference (Referring expression) | the symbolic relationship that an expression has with the concrete object or abstraction it represents |
| Референт | Referent | The concrete object or abstraction that an expression represents |
| Экстенсионал | Extension | The extension of an object is a set of all things it refers to |
| Полисемия | Polysemy | The ability of a word to have more than one meaning related to each other | __to get__
| Референтные именные группы | Definite referring expressions | refer to one identifiable object or class | the shortest girl in the group |
| Нереферентные именные группы | Indefinite referring expressions | the referent might not be identified exactly | a black cat |
| Универсальные именные группы | Collective referring expressions | treat all members as a set | __All kids__ are pure evil. |
| Атрибутивные именные группы | Distributive referring expressions | refer to all members individually | __The Rolling Stones__ are exceptionally rich. |
| Родовые именные группы | - | refer to one typical member of a group | __A human__ will step on Mars one day. |
| Экзистенциальные именные группы | - | refer to one part of a set | __Some people__ are afraid of bats. |
| Композиты (словосложение) | Compounds | Lexemes that consist of more than one stem | birthday
| - | Bare nouns | Nouns that are used without any quantifiers or deternminers | on sale
| Дейксис | Deixis | A general term that feres to the use of certain words that always have the same semantic meaning but their denotation depends on the context | deictic words: you, we, here, there |
| Дейктический центр | Deictic center | The center of the deictic relationships in a context |
| Речевой акт | Speech act | A phrase uttered by an individual that both presents some information and performs an action | I'm late for school, can you please drive me? |
| Участники речевого акта (локуторы) | Interlocutors | People involved in a speech act |
| Иллокуция | Illocutionary acts | "by saying something, we _do_ something" - a purpose of a speech act |
| Перлокуция | Perlocutionary acts | the effect the speech act has on a listener |
| Локуция | Locutionary act | the actual (surface) representation of a speech act, i.e., a sentence or a clause |
| Перформативные речевые акты | Performative speech acts | the action that the sentence describes is performed by the utterance of the sentence itself | nominating, congratulating, promising |
| Шифтеры | Shifters | Units that index certain speech act circumstances | personal pronouns, tense
| Клюзивность | Grammatical distinction between inclusive and exclusive first-person pronouns |
| Инклюзивность | Inclusive form | First-person pronouns that include the addressee | inclusive "we": I and you (and possibly they) |
| Эксклюзивность | Exclusive form | First-person pronouns that exclude the addressee | exclusive "we": I and they, but not you |
| Логофорические местоимения | Logophoric pronouns | The specially-formed anaphors that are morphologically distinct from the typical pronouns of a language |
| Анафора | Anaphor | The use of an expression whose interpretation depends upon another expression in context | Персональный дейксис | Personal deixis | the deixis of grammatical persons in an utterance, usually expressed by personal pronouns |
| Пространственный дейксис | Spatial deixis | The deixis of spatial locations in an utterance, usually expressed by the adverbs _here_ and _there_ and the demonstratives |
| Временной дейксис | Temporal deixis | The deixis of the various times of an utterance |
| Хабитуалис | Habitual aspect | Specifies an action that occurs regularly (habitually) | Jane drives a car.
| Таксис | Taxis | Relative time or the sequence of tenses |
| Финитная стратегия таксиса | - | согласование времен предикатов с использованием абсолютного времени глагола | Петя видит, как Маша пишет письмо.
| Нефинитная стратегия таксиса | - | выражение незаконченного действия в клаузе через деепричастие | Подъезжая к станции, я достал документы.
| Относительное время | Relative tense | the grammatical expression of time reference provided by the context |
| Абсолютное время | Absolute tense | the grammatical expression of time reference relative to the moment of speaking |
| Зависимостное маркирование | Dependent-marking | the grammatical markers of agreement and case government between the words of phrases tend to appear more on dependents than on heads | дом отц-**а**
| Вершинное маркирование | Head-marking | the grammatical markers tend to appear more on the heads of phrases rather than on their dependents | xane-**ye** pedär ‘дом отца’ (персидский)
| Изафет | Izafa | A grammatical particle found in Semitic languages that links two words together mostly to indicate possession | كيلو موز "a kilo of bananas"
| Отчуждаемая принадлежность | Alienable possession | A type of possession in which a possessor might lose their possesion of the item | my money
| Неотчуждаемая принадлежность | Inalienable possession | A type of possession in which a noun is obligatorily possessed by its possessor | Jane's hand
| Изолирующий язык | Isolating laguguage | A language that has no inflectional morphology (one morpheme per word) | Vietnamese
| Синтетический язык | Synthetic language | A language that uses inflection to indicate grammatical categories | Russian, German, Czech
| Аналитический язык | Analytic language | A language that mainly uses additional words and word order to indicate grammatical categories | English, Swedish, Mandarin
| Флективный язык | Inflected (fusional) language | one morpheme can denote several grammatical, syntactic or semantic features | Polish, Sanskrit, Greek
| Агглютинативный язык | Agglutinative language | morphemes tend to keep their single meaning | Finnish, Turkish, Japanese
| Полисинтетический язык | Polysynthetic language | highly inflected (words are composer from may morphemes) | Chukchi, Greenlandic
| Клитика | Clitic | A morpheme that stands out as a separate word but is pronounced like an affix glued prosodically to the dependent word | I'm, We've
| Энклитики | Enclitics | appear after the host word | вопрóс **же**
| Проклитики | Proclitics | appear before the host word | **про** мáльчика
| Энклиномены | - | phonologically never stressed | пó лесу
| Грамматикализация | Grammaticalization | The process of deriving new function words from previously nouns and verbs | "willan" (OE "to want") -> will (aux)
| Грамматика зависимостей | Dependency grammar | grammatical theories based on the dependency relations in a sentence |
| Проективное предложение | Projective tree structure | There are no crossing dependency edges and/or projection lines | Я очень давно его не видел.
| Непроективное предложение | Discontinuity | A direct connection cannot be established between the two words without incurring crossing lines in the tree structure | Очень я давно его не видел. |
| Корпус | Corpus | A language resource that consists of large and structured text data | НКРЯ, BNC, COCA
| Разметка (аннотирование) | Assigning tags that are used to highlight certain linguistic features of a text |