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title: 西洋文學概論(二) Introduction to Western Literature (2) (HSFL10030)

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# 西洋文學概論(二) Introduction to Western Literature (2) (HSFL10030)
:::info
Disclaimer:
These notes are not used for commercial purposes, and are only to serve as a personal study guide. The contents of these notes are compiled and rearranged from various sources.
:::
Grading:
* Weekly quizzes (the average of all weekly quizzes multiplied by 6): 30%
* Midterm exam: 25%
* Final exam: 35%
* Film quizzes: 10%
* Extra bonus: 5%

Lesson Plan:
* Molière (Jean-Baptiste Poquelin)
    * Tartuffe
* Jean Racine
    * Phèdre
* Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)
    * Candide
* Jean-Jacques Rosseau
    * Confessions, part 1
    * Confessions, part 2
    * Ode to the West Wind, parts IV & V (Percy Bysshe Shelley)
* Johann Wolfgang Von Goethe
    * Faust, part 1
    * Prologue in Heaven
    * Night
    * Faust's Study I
    * Faust's Study II
    * Evening
    * A Garden
    * A Summerhouse
    * Gretchen's Room
    * Marthe's Garden
    * The City Wall
    * The Cathedral
    * An Overcast Day. A Field
    * Night. Open Country.
    * A Prison
* Romantic Lyrics
    * Friedrich Hölderlin
        * The Half of Life
        * Brevity
        * To the Fates
    * Anna Bunina
        * Conversation between Me and the Women
    * Heinrich Heine
        * A Pine Is Standing Lonely
        * A Young Man Loves a Maiden
        * The Silesian Weavers
    * Giacomo Leopardi
        * The Infinite
        * To Himself
    * Rosalía de Castro
        * The Ailing Woman Felt Her Forces Ebb
        * I Well Know There Is Nothing
        * The Feet of Spring Are on the Stair
    * José Martí
        * I Am an Honest Man
    * Alexander Sergeyevich Pushkin
        * The Queen of Spades
    * Fyodor Dostovesky
        * Notes from Underground
            * Part I, Chapter I, V, XI
            * Part II, Chapter I, VI, VII, VIII, IX. X
    * Gustave Flaubert
        * Madame Bovary
            * Part I, Chapter 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
            * Part II, Chapter 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
            * Part III, Chapter 6, 8, 11
    * Anton Chekhov
        * The Cherry Orchard
    * Marcel Proust
        * Swann's Way
    * Franz Kafka
        * The Metamorphosis


## Molière
*Tartuffe* (or *The Hypocrite*, or *The Imposter*) was a French theatrical comedy that was written and first performed in 1664 and then suppressed by King Louis XIV urged by the Roman Catholic religious officials.

The play was written by Jean-Baptiste Pocquelin (whose stage name was *Molière*).

:::warning
The classic comedy *Tartuffe* is a satiric attack on religion, patriarchy, and human folly and a stirring call for moderation and reason.
:::

### Summary
#### Act One
At the start of the play, Tartuffe has used displays of extreme piety to gain Orgon as a disciple and patron. Tartuffe lives off Orgon's household while Tartuffe himself *supposedly* keeps the husehold free of sin.

Orgon's mother, Madame Pernelle passionately supports her son and Tartuffe; however, everyone else in the family wants to get rid of Tartuffe, suspecting him an imposter (and are rightfully so).

Tartuffe not only scams Orgon, but also threatens the future marriages of Mariane and Damis, Orgon's son and daughter born of his first marriage. Furthermore, he also comes between Orgon and his current wife, Elmire.

In Act One, both Dorine (the maid to Mariane) and Cléante (the brother of Elmire) confront Orgon about Tartuffe, but fail to end his infactuation with the imposter.
#### Act Two
In Act Two, Orgon informs Mariane that he is breaking her engagement to Valère (Mariane's suitor, whom she loves), and instead is betrothing her to Tartuffe. Mariane and Valère are dismayed by the order, but are too afraid of Orgon and caught up in their own quarrel to disobey him.

Dorine confronts Orgon on the young lovers' behalf, then she goes and referees Mariane and Valère's squabbles, getting them to admit their loves for each other, successfully urging them to stand strong against Orgon's orders.
#### Act Three
Elmire then continues Dorines efforts to rescue Mariane and Valère. Elmire takes advantage of Tartuffe's interest in herself and approaches Tartuffe, intending to ask him to persuade Orgon to change his mind and allow the young couple's marriage. Tartuffe takes advantage of this request for a private meeting by touching and propositioning her, the moves intended to further alienate Orgon from Elmire.

Damis, Orgon's son, hides in a closet and overhears Tartuffe harassing Elmire. Hotheaded, he immediately reports this to his father.

Orgon confronts Tartuffe about what he's been told, and Tartuffe admits that he is a sinner; however, he twists what Damis says and shifts blame onto Damis. Orgon, now tricked by Tartuffe's reverse psychology, demands Damis apologize to Tartuffe. Damis refuses, and is thrown out and disinherited.

Tartuffe then offers to move out in order to restore peace to Orgon's family; Orgon is moved by this act of self-sacrifice, and signs the deed to his property over to Tartuffe.
#### Act Four
When we reach Act Four, the scandals in Orgon's household are starting to spread among society, but opposition to Tartuffe only makes Orgon even more stubborn. He decrees that Mariane will marry Tartuffe that night. Mariane is devasted and begs Orgon not to force her to marry someone she hates.

When Mariane's plea fals, Elmire decides to stage a seduction of Tartuffe. She invites Orgon to witness the event and see Tartuffe's wickedness for himself.

Tartuffe responds aggressively to Elmire's overtures while bragging about how easy it is to lead Orgon on. Enraged by this comment, Orgon turns on Tartuffe and tries to order him out of the house.

But all is too late—as now the house belongs to Tartuffe. Orgon's reaction to this is to worry about a secret strong-box.
#### Act Five
It turns out that the strong-box Orgon was worried about was hidden at the request of a friend in exile. However, now that Tartuffe is now in possession of it, he blackmails Orgon.

Orgon rages over Tartuffe's behavior and Cléante tries to reason with Tartuffe, but now Tartuffe is bent on wants revenge. He gets Orgon and his family evicted from their house and persuades the King to issue an order for Orgon's arrest. Valère tries to help Orgon flee, but it's too late—Tartuffe has already arrived with a royal officer to escort Orgon to prison.

Instead of arresting Orgon, the royal officer turns on Tartuffe and arrests him. The officer explaines that when Tartuffe denounced Orgon at court, the King recognized Tartuffe as a wanted criminal who had commit many vicious crimes in the past.

At the end of the play, the King restore Orgon's property, pardons him for hiding a fugitive's strong-box, and rewards him for previous loyal service.

The play ends with the renewed betrothal of Valère and Mariane.
### Characters
#### Orgon
* ==The protagonist==
* Wealthy, middle-aged head of a household
* Once an able and wise man
* Succumbed to religious zealotry
* Uses morality to exercise power over family
* ==Gullible, stubborn, not very bright==

Orgon embodies the play's major themes. He uses his hypocritical piety to justify his domestic tyranny.
#### Tartuffe
* ==The antagonist==
* ==An imposter who preys on Orgon's family==
* ==Fakes holy poverty and religious fervor==
* In public:
    * Demonstrates extreme acts of penance and ostentatious charity
* In private:
    * Gorges on food and wine
    * Leers at the women in Orgon's household

While pretending piety, Tartuffe commits all of the seven deadly sins: pride, envy, gluttony, lust, greed, sloth, and anger.

Tartuffe's arrest is the climax of the play, the moment in which good triumphs over evil.
#### Dorine
* ==The maid to Mariane==
* Lowest in social class in the household
* ==Most truthful character—can state the truth without fear==
* Clear-headed and competent
* Worldly, skeptical, and self-confident
* ==Serves as a foil for her naive, gullible, and insecure master Orgon, and for his shy, obedient daughter, Mariane==
#### Elmire
* ==Orgon's second wife and stepmother of Orgon's children Damis and Mariane==
* Witty and fashionable—wears fine clothing and enterains many friends
* Reasonably religious and virtuous
* ==Devoted to her husband and stepchildren==
* ==Wise to the ways of society—recognizes the need to avoid scandal and protect her husband's family==
#### Cléante
* ==Elmire's brother and Orgon's brother-in-law==
* Frequent visitor of Orgon's house
* Philosopher and serious thinker—a voice of reason and moderation whose speeches border on the pompous
* Dispenses wise thoughts and argues commonsense positions
* ==Approaches crises with caution, yet given to inaction==
### Literary Devices
#### Themes
:::spoiler What is the *theme* of a story?
*Themes* are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work.
:::
1. Hypocrisy as a Means to Power
    
    In the play, Orgon, Madame Pernelle, and Tartuffe all succumb to using hypocrisy to increase their own power.

    * For Orgon, Tartuffe's pious acts make Orgon feel holier by association, which adds to his assurance that he thinks he's right concerning his children, Damis and Mariane.

    * Madame Pernelle believes in Tartuffe because her son also does, and allying herself with Orgon helps maintain her power within the family.

    * Through hypocrisy, Tartuffe makes himself a symbol of Orgon's authority.

2. Credulity as a Tool of Duplicity

    Tartuffe is a con artist and liar, but his schemes cannot succeed without a mark foolish enough to believe his lies. Thus, when he meets Orgon, who buys Tartuffe's whole act, he keeps up the lie and accepts the benefits he gains from Orgon, as well as the freedom to ogle Elmire.
    
    The source of credulity is self-delusion. Orgon believes himself to be guided by Heaven's will, thus he trusts every word of Tartuffe's. Tartuffe deludes himself that women find him attractive—of which is not true.

3. Family as the Source of Social Order

    Tartuffe's strategy is to tear Orgon's family apart, making individual members more valuable. Because of Tartuffe's machinations, the family becomes dysfunctional.
    
    The conventional happy ending of the story restores the conventional social order, but it will take more than a royal declaration to restore true trust and harmony in Orgon's household.
    
4. Moderation as the Path to Virtue

    Orgon, Tartuffe, Mariane, Valère, and Damis all demonstrate the wvil or painful consequences of excessive behavior and rash decisions.
    
    The wisest characters—Dorine, Elmire, and Cléante—use reason, not emotions, to solve their problems.
#### Motifs
:::spoiler What is the *motif* of a story?
*Motifs* are recurring structures, contrasts, or literary devices that can help develop and inform the text's major themes.
:::
1. Insanity

    The motif of insanity draws attention to contrasts in the plot between order and disorder, dysfunction and harmony, extravagance and moderation.
2. Gossip

    Throughout the play, gossip provides an unseen chorus of commentary that helps place the action in the wider world and thus prepares the audience for the final interventions of the King.
3. Heaven
    
    Appeals to Heaven appear throughout the play, since the characters assume or expect divine intervention in their affairs. The frequent appeals to Heaven serve to remind the audience of human self-delusion and folly.
#### Symbols
:::spoiler What is the *symbol* of a story?
*Symbols* are objects, characters, figures, or colors used to represent abstract ideas or concepts.
:::
1. Luxury Clothing

    Elmire likes nice clothes, which her mother-in-law, Madame Pernelle, calls "costly fripperies".
    
    * To Madame Pernelle, Elmire's clothes symbolize reckless spending and immodesty.
    * To Elmire, the clothes symbolize wealth, pleasure, and youth.
    * To Tartuffe, Elmire's clothes are symbols of sexual desire.

    In addition, as the seemingly holiest man on earth, Tartuffe naturally renounces fine clothing for himself and wears a hair shirt in public.

2. Handkerchiefs

    In Act One, Dorine tells Cléante how she witnessed Tartuffe's servant tear a handkerchief in pieces because it had polluted a holy book. In Act Three, Tartuffe hands Dorine his handkerchief and tells her to cover her bosom so that she can't tempt him to sin.
    
    As both scenes above reveal attempts to control and humiliate Dorine, the handkerchiefs stand for what Dorine suffers. The handkerchief also signal that bullying is taking place.
3. Illness

    * In Act One, Elmire is sick in bed, yet Orgon ignores her. Ths illness stands as a symbol of discord in their marriage.
    * Later in the play when Elmire fakes coughs to get Orgon's attention, he fails to pick up her signal, which stands for a marriage that still needs to heal.
4. Deeds and Documents
    
    * When Orgon draws up the deed that grants his house to Tartuffe, the deed symbolizes his reckless rejection of his own family
    * The writ of eviction that the bailiff serves on Orgon represents Orgon's public disgrace
    * The negative report that the bailiff threatens to file against Damis and Dorine stands for the family's new social insecurity
    * The deeds, papers, and pardons with which the King rewards Orgon stand for justice and the restoration of order.
5. The Strong-Box
    The strong-box stands for secrets, not only potentially dangerous political secrets but also domestic secrets.
## Phèdre
Phèdre (originally *Phèdre et Hippolyte*; translated in English as *Phaedra*) is a French dramatic tragedy in five acts written in alexandrine verse by Jean Racine, first performed in 1677 at the theatre of the Hôtel de Bourgogne in Paris.

:::info
**Alexandrine** is a verse form that is the leading measure in French poetry. It consists of a line of 12 syllables with major stresses on the 6th syllable (which precedes the medial caesura [pause]) and on the last syllable, and one secondary accent in each half line.
:::

### Summary
#### Act One
Theseus has disappeared during one of his expeditions. Hippolytus tells Theramenes of his intentions to search for his father, but in truth he is looking for a chance to leave Troezen, where the court has been in residence for some time. His only motive is to escape the charms of Aricia, the only survivor of the royal family who formerly ruled Athens. He is in love with her, and his father has forbidden her to marry.

Oenone, Phaedra's nurse announces her mistress, but wishing to avoid an unplesant meeting, he departs. It is revealed through Phaedra and Oenone's conversation that Phaedra holds incestrous and forbidden love for Hippolytus.

Phaedra wishes for death, but the sudden announcement for Theseus' death allows her free to indulge her passion. Phaedra gives up her suicide plan in order to arrange an alliance with Hippolytus against Aricia, to perserve her own son's right to the throne of Athens.
#### Act Two
Ismene, Aricia's confidante, announces Theseus' death to Aricia and also reveals her suspicion of Hippolytus' romantic feelings for Aricia. Aricia, it turns out, has also fallen in love with Hippolytus.

Hippolytus confirms Ismene's suspicions, and confesses tenderly, yet awkwardly. Aricia also timidly admits her own feelings, but the interview is interrupted by the announcement of Phaedra's arrival.

Phaedra comes in with the alleged intention of pleading for her son. However, she is carried away by her passion, and reveals her secret love. Phaedra is crushed by Hippolytus' horrified reception, and she takes his sword to kill herself.

As Phaedra rushes out, Theramenes comes in with the rumor that Theseus might still be alive. Hippolytus decides to investigate the rumor and fight against Phaedra's claim to the throne and in defense of Aricia rights.
#### Act Three
Phaedra's confession, in spite of her humiliation, have revived her hopes and she now urges a reluctant Oenone to plead her case with Hippolytus. However, the situation changes once again with the news of Theseus' return.

Phaedra panicks once more, also threatening suicide, then yields to Oenone's deceitful plan to accuse Hippolytus of attempting to seduce her.

When Theseus comes in, Phaedra departs with a cryptic hint, and Hippolytus also leaves with a lame excuse.
#### Act Four
At the beginning of the scene, Oenone slanders Hippolytus offstage. Theseus is completely deceived by these lies, and when Hippolytus appears, Theseus accuses his son, and sends prayers to Neptune for revenge.

Hippolytus defends himself by pointing out his reputation for virtue and reminding Theseus of Phaedra's ancestry*, and by confessing his love for Aricia. Theseus rejects the last argument as a mere ploy.

Meanwhile, Phaedra, now remorseful, goes to see Theseus to plead for Hippolytus. But she changes her mind when Thseus unwittingly reveals to her that she has successful rival. She becomes hysterical with jealousy and rage.

Finally, Phaedra repents and rejects Oenone Oenone, the instigator and agent of her treachery.
:::spoiler What does Phaedra's ancestry have to do with anything?
It is known that Phaedra is the famous Ariadne's sister, and both of them are daughters of King Minos of Crete. Therefore, if the subject Theseus is discussing is to be adultery and incest, Phaedra comes from a family more noted from these crimes than his own.

And yeah, the family of Phaedra is *seriously* messed up.
:::
#### Act Five
Still refusing to clear his name, Hippolytus decides to flee, but not before arranging a rendezvous with Aricia so that the both of them may wed.

Immediately after Hippolytus' departure, Aricia stands up to Theseus and defends Hippolytus' innocence with such conviction that the king's certainty is shaken.

Theseus calls for Oenone, but is even more disturbed when it is revealed of Oenone's suicide and Phaedra's irrational behavior. Theseus is at last willing to reconsider his son's guilt, but it is too late, as Theramenes comes in with the tale of Hippolytus' death. Phaedra comes in and clears Hippolytus, then dies of the effects of a poison that she had taken earlier.

Grief-stricken, Theseus vows to make full amends to his son's memory and treat Aricia as his daughter.
### Characters
#### Phaedra
* Wife to Theseus
* Daughter of the Cretan king Minos and his wife, Pasiphaë

Despite her crimes, Phaedra does not inspire the kind of abhorrence that her acts would suggest. She is fundamentally a virtuous person resisting the pull of the abyss—she is neither entirely good nor entirely evil, and is kept within human bounds.
#### Hippolytus
* Son of Theseus and Antiope, queen of the Amazons
* He is famous for his chastity
* Cause of death—indirectly by Phaedra
#### Aricia
* Royal princess, last descendant of a family destroyed by Theseus
* Falls in love with Hippolytus

While Aricia and Phaedra are on the surface, parallel characters, two women in love with the same man, they are directly contrasted. Together, they incarnate Racine's leitmotif of night and day. Phaedra is darkness, while Aricia is light. Her love is pure, chaste, and selfless. She has has the innocence and shyness of the virgin.

Unlike Phaedra, who flaunts herself before Hippolytus, Aricia waits shyly for the traditional proposal and makes her own declaration demurely.
#### Oenone
* Phaedra's nurse
* Provides disastrous advice out of fierce, maternal love

Like her mistress, she is the victim of an overwhelming passion—in her case, maternal-like love.
#### Theseus
* King of Athens
* Famous for his legendary exploits
* Falsely convinced of his son's guilt—asks Neptune to kill Hippolytus

In his appearances, limited to the latter part of the play, Thseus, despite the ambiguity and humiliation of his situation behaves with the dignity and nobility we would expect of an aging king.
### Personal Notes 'n Stuff
So yeah! We finished yet another quick review of another literary work!

But here's the thing—I was obsessed with Greek mythology since grade school, and, yeah, there were a lot of confusion for me when I read this play. Such as the motives for Hippolytus rejecting Phaedra (not counting the incestuous parts), Hippolytus' lineage, etc.

So yeah, now I'm gonna share with you what's different from the myths I knew and this play (which had obviously taken a few creative liberties).
#### Euripides' *Hippolytus*
When we talk about the story of Hippolytus (or search online), the first thing that might come up is Euripides' tragedy, *Hippolytus*. Here below is a brief summary:

(Or if you don't want to read through the story below, here is [a link to a video](https://youtu.be/WA_OXdcTNr8) that I really recommend which explains the story better than I do.)

> Because Hippolytus has devoted himself to virginity and Artemis, and has arrogantly rejected sexuality, desire, and Aphrodite, Aphrodite has grown angry, thus she curses Phaedra to fall madly in love with Hippolytus. This sets the story into motion.

> Phaedra, on the other hand, starts to suffer from an unknown illness—she sill not eat and is nearing death. Her nurse eventually elicits an answer from her, which is that she has been overwhelmed by a sexual desire for Hippolytus.

> The nurse, trying to help Phaedra, goes and finds Hippolytus, and after having him swear an oath of silence, proposes the idea for him to have a sexual affair with Phaedra. Hippolytus cruelly denounces Phaedra's desire.

> Phaedra, who stands at the palace door and hears what Hippolytus shouts at the nurse, is now convinced that her case is lost and resolves to die, yet not before plotting to guard her reputation.

> Shortly after, Phaedra hangs herself. Just then, Theseus returns from visiting oracle, ironically wearing a crown of flowers that indicate a favorable response. He grieves for his wife suddenly, but then finds a wax tablet in her hand with her own handwriting accusing Hippolytus of raping her.

> Theseus is angered by this, and he calls down one of the three fatal curses granted by his father, Poseidon, on Hippolytus. In case the death curse fails, he also exiles Hippolytus from both Troezen and Athens.

> A short while later, a messenger tells Theseus that Hippolytus is dead, and Theseus is satisfied that his son is dead.

> Suddenly, Artemis appears above the stage and tells the truth. A dying Hippolytus is carried onto the stage and set before Theseus. Father and son feel enormous pain and sadness for the other, and they forgive each other. Artemis promises to take her own vengeance on Aphrodite and set up a cult in which young maidens will honor the memory of Hippolytus.

And so here now we compare the differences:


|          | Euripides' *Hippolytus* | Racine's *Phèdre* |
| -------- | -------- | -------- |
| Hippolytus' parentage | Hippolyta | Antiope* |
| Inciting Incident of the Story | Hippolytus prefers one goddess to another; inadverdently causes curse born from divine rage | Phaedra loves Hippolytus of her own will, despite him already loving someone else |
| Hippolytus' love life | Single; vowed to virginity | In love with Aricia |

:::spoiler About Antiope as Hippolytus' mother
Actually, this part was *not* from creative liberty, but instead, there were older mythological records that also state Antiope as the mother, a notable example being Hyginus' *Fabulae*.
:::

And if you deep even digger, you can find many, many differing version of the story of Hippolytus, so if you're interested, here's the [link to Phaedra's Wikipedia page](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phaedra_(mythology)), which provides a bunch of info on this.

But for me, I'm exhausted and not going to explain any further.

And now, on to the next piece of literature!
## Candide
### Summary
Candide is the illigetimate nephew of a German baron. He grows up in the baron's castle under the tutelage of the scholar Pangloss, who teaches him that this world is "the best of all possible worlds." Candide falls in love with the baron's daughter, Cunégonde, and they kiss. They are caught by the baron and Candide is expelled from his home.

Candide is soon conscripted into the army of the Bulgars. He wanders away from camp for a brief walk, but is then flogged as a deserter. After witnessing a horrific battle, he manages to escape and travels to Holland.

In Holland, a kind Anabaptist names Jacques takes Candide in. Candide runs into a deformed beggar and discovers that he is Pangloss. Pangloss explains that he has contracted syphilis and that Cunégonde and her family have all been brutally murdered by the Bulgar army. Nonetheless, he maintains his optimistic outlook. Jacques takes Pangloss in as well.

:::spoiler What is an Anabaptist?
Anabaptists believe that baptism is valid only when candidates freely confess their faith in Christ and request to be baptized. This believer's baptism is opposed to baptism of infants
:::

The three travel to Lisbon together, but before they arrive their ship runs into a storm and Jacques is drowned. Candide and Pangloss arrive in Lisbon to find it destroyed by an earthquake and under the control of the Inquisition. Pangloss is soon hanged as a heretic, and Candide is flogged for listening with approval to Pangloss's philosophy. After his beating, an old woman dresses Candide's wounds and then, to his astonishment, takes him to Cunégonde.

Cunégonde explains that though the Bulgars killed the rest of her family, she was merely raped and then captured by a captain, who sold her to a Jew named Don Isaachar. She is now the sex slave jointly owned by Don Isaachar and the Grand Inquisitor of Lisbon. Each of the two owners arrive in turn as they speak, and Candide kills both of them.

Terrified, Candide, the old woman, and Cunégonde flee and board a ship bound for South America. During their journey, the old woman relates her own story. She was born the Pope's daughter but has suffered a list of misfortunes that include rape, enslavement, and cannibalism.

Candide and Cunégonde plan to marry, but as soon as they arrive in Beunos Aires, the governor, Don Fernando, prosposes to Cunégonde. She accepts on behalf of her own financial welfare. Authorities looking for the murderer of the Grand Inquisitor arrive from Portugal in pursuit of Candide. Along with a newly acquired valet named Cacambo, Candide flees to territory controlled by Jesuits who are revolting against the Spanish government. After demanding an audience with a Jesuit commander, Candide discovers that the commander is Cunégonde's brother, the baron, who also managed to escape the Bulgars. Candide announces that he plans to marry Cunégonde, but the baron insists that Cunégonde will never marry a commoner. Enraged, Candide kills Cunégonde's brother, and he and Cacambo escape into the wilderness, where they narrowly avoid being eaten by a native tribe called the Biglugs.

:::spoiler Who are the Jesuits?
Members of the Society of Jesus are expected to accept orders to go anywhere in the world, where they might be required to live in extreme conditions. This was so because Ignatius, its leading founder, was a nobleman who had a military background. Accordingly, the opening lines of the founding document declared that the society was founded for "whoever desires to serve as a soldier of God, to strive especially for the defense and propagation of the faith, and for the progress of souls in Christian life and doctrine". Jesuits are thus sometimes referred to colloquially as "God's soldiers", "God's marines", or "the Company". The society participated in the Counter-Reformation and, later, in the implementation of the Second Vatican Council.
:::

After traveling for days, Candide and Cacambo find themselves in the land of Eldorado. This utopian country has advanced scientific knowledge, no religious conflict, no court system, and places no value on its plentiful gold and jewels. However, Candide longs to return to Cunégonde, so they depart one month later with countless invaluable jewels.

When they reach Surinam, Candide sends Cacambo to Buenos Aires with instructions to use part of the fortune to purchase Cunégonde from Don Fernando and then to meet him in Venice.

A merchant named Vanderdendur steals much of Candide's fortune, dampening his optimism. Frustrated, Candide sails off to France with a pessimistic scholar named Martin. On the way there, he recovers part of his fortune when a Spanish captain sinks Vanderdendur's ship. Candide takes this as proof that there is justice in the world, but Martin disagrees.

In Paris, Candide and Martin mingle with the social elite. Candide’s fortune attracts a number of hangers-on, several of whom succeed in filching jewels from him. Candide and Martin proceed to Venice, where, to Candide’s dismay, Cunégonde and Cacambo are nowhere to be found. However, they do encounter other colorful individuals there, including Paquette, the chambermaid-turned-prostitute who gave Pangloss syphilis, and Count Pococurante, a wealthy Venetian who is hopelessly bored with the cultural treasures that surround him.

Eventually, Cacambo, now a slave of a deposed Turkish monarch, surfaces. He explains that Cunégonde is in Constantinople, having herself been enslaved along with the old woman. Martin, Cacambo, and Candide depart for Turkey, where Candide purchases Cacambo’s freedom.

Candide discovers Pangloss and the baron in a Turkish chain gang. Both have actually survived their apparent deaths and, after suffering various misfortunes, arrived in Turkey. Despite everything, Pangloss remains an optimist. An overjoyed Candide purchases their freedom, and he and his growing retinue go on to find Cunégonde and the old woman.

Cunégonde has grown ugly since Candide last saw her, but he purchases her freedom anyway. He also buys the old woman’s freedom and purchases a farm outside of Constantinople. He keeps his longstanding promise to marry Cunégonde, but only after being forced to send the baron, who still cannot abide his sister marrying a commoner, back to the chain gang. 

Candide, Cunégonde, Cacambo, Pangloss, and the old woman settle into a comfortable life on the farm but soon find themselves growing bored and quarrelsome. Finally, Candide encounters a farmer who lives a simple life, works hard, and avoids vice and leisure. Inspired, Candide and his friends take to cultivating a garden in earnest. All their time and energy goes into the work, and none is left over for philosophical speculation. At last everyone is fulfilled and happy.