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Lab0 lib/list_sort.c 研讀筆記

list_sort.c src 
// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0
#include <linux/compiler.h>
#include <linux/export.h>
#include <linux/list_sort.h>
#include <linux/list.h>

/*
 * Returns a list organized in an intermediate format suited
 * to chaining of merge() calls: null-terminated, no reserved or
 * sentinel head node, "prev" links not maintained.
 */
__attribute__((nonnull(2,3,4)))
static struct list_head *merge(void *priv, list_cmp_func_t cmp,
				struct list_head *a, struct list_head *b)
{
	struct list_head *head, **tail = &head;

	for (;;) {
		/* if equal, take 'a' -- important for sort stability */
		if (cmp(priv, a, b) <= 0) {
			*tail = a;
			tail = &a->next;
			a = a->next;
			if (!a) {
				*tail = b;
				break;
			}
		} else {
			*tail = b;
			tail = &b->next;
			b = b->next;
			if (!b) {
				*tail = a;
				break;
			}
		}
	}
	return head;
}

/*
 * Combine final list merge with restoration of standard doubly-linked
 * list structure.  This approach duplicates code from merge(), but
 * runs faster than the tidier alternatives of either a separate final
 * prev-link restoration pass, or maintaining the prev links
 * throughout.
 */
__attribute__((nonnull(2,3,4,5)))
static void merge_final(void *priv, list_cmp_func_t cmp, struct list_head *head,
			struct list_head *a, struct list_head *b)
{
	struct list_head *tail = head;
	u8 count = 0;

	for (;;) {
		/* if equal, take 'a' -- important for sort stability */
		if (cmp(priv, a, b) <= 0) {
			tail->next = a;
			a->prev = tail;
			tail = a;
			a = a->next;
			if (!a)
				break;
		} else {
			tail->next = b;
			b->prev = tail;
			tail = b;
			b = b->next;
			if (!b) {
				b = a;
				break;
			}
		}
	}

	/* Finish linking remainder of list b on to tail */
	tail->next = b;
	do {
		/*
		 * If the merge is highly unbalanced (e.g. the input is
		 * already sorted), this loop may run many iterations.
		 * Continue callbacks to the client even though no
		 * element comparison is needed, so the client's cmp()
		 * routine can invoke cond_resched() periodically.
		 */
		if (unlikely(!++count))
			cmp(priv, b, b);
		b->prev = tail;
		tail = b;
		b = b->next;
	} while (b);

	/* And the final links to make a circular doubly-linked list */
	tail->next = head;
	head->prev = tail;
}

/**
 * list_sort - sort a list
 * @priv: private data, opaque to list_sort(), passed to @cmp
 * @head: the list to sort
 * @cmp: the elements comparison function
 *
 * The comparison function @cmp must return > 0 if @a should sort after
 * @b ("@a > @b" if you want an ascending sort), and <= 0 if @a should
 * sort before @b *or* their original order should be preserved.  It is
 * always called with the element that came first in the input in @a,
 * and list_sort is a stable sort, so it is not necessary to distinguish
 * the @a < @b and @a == @b cases.
 *
 * The comparison function must adhere to specific mathematical properties
 * to ensure correct and stable sorting:
 * - Antisymmetry: cmp(@a, @b) must return the opposite sign of
 * cmp(@b, @a).
 * - Transitivity: if cmp(@a, @b) <= 0 and cmp(@b, @c) <= 0, then
 * cmp(@a, @c) <= 0.
 *
 * This is compatible with two styles of @cmp function:
 * - The traditional style which returns <0 / =0 / >0, or
 * - Returning a boolean 0/1.
 * The latter offers a chance to save a few cycles in the comparison
 * (which is used by e.g. plug_ctx_cmp() in block/blk-mq.c).
 *
 * A good way to write a multi-word comparison is::
 *
 *	if (a->high != b->high)
 *		return a->high > b->high;
 *	if (a->middle != b->middle)
 *		return a->middle > b->middle;
 *	return a->low > b->low;
 *
 *
 * This mergesort is as eager as possible while always performing at least
 * 2:1 balanced merges.  Given two pending sublists of size 2^k, they are
 * merged to a size-2^(k+1) list as soon as we have 2^k following elements.
 *
 * Thus, it will avoid cache thrashing as long as 3*2^k elements can
 * fit into the cache.  Not quite as good as a fully-eager bottom-up
 * mergesort, but it does use 0.2*n fewer comparisons, so is faster in
 * the common case that everything fits into L1.
 *
 *
 * The merging is controlled by "count", the number of elements in the
 * pending lists.  This is beautifully simple code, but rather subtle.
 *
 * Each time we increment "count", we set one bit (bit k) and clear
 * bits k-1 .. 0.  Each time this happens (except the very first time
 * for each bit, when count increments to 2^k), we merge two lists of
 * size 2^k into one list of size 2^(k+1).
 *
 * This merge happens exactly when the count reaches an odd multiple of
 * 2^k, which is when we have 2^k elements pending in smaller lists,
 * so it's safe to merge away two lists of size 2^k.
 *
 * After this happens twice, we have created two lists of size 2^(k+1),
 * which will be merged into a list of size 2^(k+2) before we create
 * a third list of size 2^(k+1), so there are never more than two pending.
 *
 * The number of pending lists of size 2^k is determined by the
 * state of bit k of "count" plus two extra pieces of information:
 *
 * - The state of bit k-1 (when k == 0, consider bit -1 always set), and
 * - Whether the higher-order bits are zero or non-zero (i.e.
 *   is count >= 2^(k+1)).
 *
 * There are six states we distinguish.  "x" represents some arbitrary
 * bits, and "y" represents some arbitrary non-zero bits:
 * 0:  00x: 0 pending of size 2^k;           x pending of sizes < 2^k
 * 1:  01x: 0 pending of size 2^k; 2^(k-1) + x pending of sizes < 2^k
 * 2: x10x: 0 pending of size 2^k; 2^k     + x pending of sizes < 2^k
 * 3: x11x: 1 pending of size 2^k; 2^(k-1) + x pending of sizes < 2^k
 * 4: y00x: 1 pending of size 2^k; 2^k     + x pending of sizes < 2^k
 * 5: y01x: 2 pending of size 2^k; 2^(k-1) + x pending of sizes < 2^k
 * (merge and loop back to state 2)
 *
 * We gain lists of size 2^k in the 2->3 and 4->5 transitions (because
 * bit k-1 is set while the more significant bits are non-zero) and
 * merge them away in the 5->2 transition.  Note in particular that just
 * before the 5->2 transition, all lower-order bits are 11 (state 3),
 * so there is one list of each smaller size.
 *
 * When we reach the end of the input, we merge all the pending
 * lists, from smallest to largest.  If you work through cases 2 to
 * 5 above, you can see that the number of elements we merge with a list
 * of size 2^k varies from 2^(k-1) (cases 3 and 5 when x == 0) to
 * 2^(k+1) - 1 (second merge of case 5 when x == 2^(k-1) - 1).
 */
__attribute__((nonnull(2,3)))
void list_sort(void *priv, struct list_head *head, list_cmp_func_t cmp)
{
	struct list_head *list = head->next, *pending = NULL;
	size_t count = 0;	/* Count of pending */

	if (list == head->prev)	/* Zero or one elements */
		return;

	/* Convert to a null-terminated singly-linked list. */
	head->prev->next = NULL;

	/*
	 * Data structure invariants:
	 * - All lists are singly linked and null-terminated; prev
	 *   pointers are not maintained.
	 * - pending is a prev-linked "list of lists" of sorted
	 *   sublists awaiting further merging.
	 * - Each of the sorted sublists is power-of-two in size.
	 * - Sublists are sorted by size and age, smallest & newest at front.
	 * - There are zero to two sublists of each size.
	 * - A pair of pending sublists are merged as soon as the number
	 *   of following pending elements equals their size (i.e.
	 *   each time count reaches an odd multiple of that size).
	 *   That ensures each later final merge will be at worst 2:1.
	 * - Each round consists of:
	 *   - Merging the two sublists selected by the highest bit
	 *     which flips when count is incremented, and
	 *   - Adding an element from the input as a size-1 sublist.
	 */
	do {
		size_t bits;
		struct list_head **tail = &pending;

		/* Find the least-significant clear bit in count */
		for (bits = count; bits & 1; bits >>= 1)
			tail = &(*tail)->prev;
		/* Do the indicated merge */
		if (likely(bits)) {
			struct list_head *a = *tail, *b = a->prev;

			a = merge(priv, cmp, b, a);
			/* Install the merged result in place of the inputs */
			a->prev = b->prev;
			*tail = a;
		}

		/* Move one element from input list to pending */
		list->prev = pending;
		pending = list;
		list = list->next;
		pending->next = NULL;
		count++;
	} while (list);

	/* End of input; merge together all the pending lists. */
	list = pending;
	pending = pending->prev;
	for (;;) {
		struct list_head *next = pending->prev;

		if (!next)
			break;
		list = merge(priv, cmp, pending, list);
		pending = next;
	}
	/* The final merge, rebuilding prev links */
	merge_final(priv, cmp, head, pending, list);
}
EXPORT_SYMBOL(list_sort);

標頭研讀

// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0
#include <linux/compiler.h>
#include <linux/export.h>
#include <linux/list_sort.h>
#include <linux/list.h>

// SPDX-License-Identifier: GPL-2.0 SPDX（Software Package Data Exchange）是一種標準化的方式，用來標示軟體的授權許可資訊。GPL-2.0 則代表採用 GNU 通用公共授權（GNU General Public License）第 2 版 進行授權。這是一種開源許可證，允許使用者自由地使用、修改和分發代碼，但前提是必須遵守 GPL-2.0 的條款，例如分發修改後的代碼時也必須保持開源並提供原始碼。這行註解清楚地告訴開發者這段代碼的法律授權狀態，避免了冗長的版權聲明文字。
#include <linux/compiler.h> : 它確保代碼在不同環境下都能正確編譯和運行
#include <linux/export.h> : 此定義了用於導出符號的巨集，例如 EXPORT_SYMBOL。在 Linux 核心中，有些函數或變數需要被其他核心模組（module）使用，這時就需要透過這些巨集將它們標記為可導出，如果有函數需要被其他模組調用，就會依賴這個頭檔案提供的功能

概述

list_sort 用於對linux kernel中的doubly linekd list進行排序。排序部分採用的是穩定的 merge sort algorithm，並支援自定義比較邏輯。

為什麼使用合併排序？

  1. 穩定性：合併排序保證相等元素的相對順序不變，這在核心中非常重要。
  2. linked list友好：合併排序不需隨機存取，只需指針操作即可分割和合併鏈表。
  3. 時間複雜度：O(nlogn)，空間複雜度低，適合linked list結構。

實現

實作方面 list_sort 仰賴兩個輔助函式 : merge 和 merge_final

輔函式1 merge

/*
 * Returns a list organized in an intermediate format suited
 * to chaining of merge() calls: null-terminated, no reserved or
 * sentinel head node, "prev" links not maintained.
 */

此註解為針對 merge 函式的作用 :
此函式回傳的中間格式架構有以下三特點 :

  1. Null-terminated（以 NULL 結尾）
  2. No reserved or sentinel head node（無保留或哨兵頭節點）
  3. "Prev" links not maintained（不維護 "prev" 連結）
    作用 : 合併兩個已排序的子列表 a 和 b，生成一個單向鏈表（以 NULL 結尾）
    src :
__attribute__((nonnull(2,3,4)))

此是GCC編譯器提供的一個擴展屬性，用於告訴編譯器某些函數參數不應該為 NULL。具體來說，這裡的 (2,3,4) 表示函數的第 2、第 3 和第 4 個參數必須是非空的ptr

static struct list_head *merge(void *priv, list_cmp_func_t cmp,
                               struct list_head *a, struct list_head *b)
{
    struct list_head *head, **tail = &head;
    for (;;) {
        if (cmp(priv, a, b) <= 0) {  // 穩定性：相等時選 a
            *tail = a;
            tail = &a->next;
            a = a->next;
            if (!a) {
                *tail = b;
                break;
            }
        } else {
            *tail = b;
            tail = &b->next;
            b = b->next;
            if (!b) {
                *tail = a;
                break;
            }
        }
    }
    return head;
}

引數 :

  • void *priv : 為一私有泛型資料指標，目的是讓使用者能設置比較邏輯 cmp 的對象
  • list_cmp_func_t cmp : 是一個自訂的比較函數，用來決定兩個串列節點 a 和 b 的相對順序
    • list_cmp_func_t 定義在 <linux/list.h> 中
    ​​​​typedef int (*list_cmp_func_t)(void *priv,
​​​​                           const struct list_head *a,
​​​​                           const struct list_head *b);
  • struct list_head *a : a 是第一個sorted的linked list head
  • struct list_head *b : b 是第二個sorted的linked list head

邏輯 :
用 *head 作為新的list之head，再用 **tail 根據 a、b list中element內容比較去選擇將該 element 串入新的list(若相等則取a保證stable)。若 a、b 誰先取完，就將另一個list串到新list後面

輔函式2 merge_final

作用：最終合併兩個子列表，並恢復雙向鏈表的 prev 指針，形成循環結構。
src :

static void merge_final(void *priv, list_cmp_func_t cmp, struct list_head *head,
                        struct list_head *a, struct list_head *b)
{
    struct list_head *tail = head;
    u8 count = 0;
    for (;;) {
        if (cmp(priv, a, b) <= 0) {
            tail->next = a;
            a->prev = tail;
            tail = a;
            a = a->next;
            if (!a)
                break;
        } else {
            tail->next = b;
            b->prev = tail;
            tail = b;
            b = b->next;
            if (!b) {
                b = a;
                break;
            }
        }
    }
    tail->next = b;
    do {
        if (unlikely(!++count))
            cmp(priv, b, b);  // 避免過長迴圈，允許調度
        b->prev = tail;
        tail = b;
        b = b->next;
    } while (b);
    tail->next = head;
    head->prev = tail;
}

邏輯 :
前面部分與 merge 相同，新的部分為多維護一個 count 與後面使用 do-while 迴圈處理剩餘節點，同時監控迴圈次數(count)以避免過長執行。最後閉合形成循環

  • unlikely() 是一個巨集（macro），作為編譯器的提示，告訴編譯器這個條件（!++count）不太可能發生，優化程式執行效率。
  • 又因 count 為 u8 ，值為255時再執行 ++count 後，會溢出，count 變為 0
  • cmp(priv, b, b) 為一 no-op ，通常包含一些副作用（side effect），觸發某些系統檢查點。這些副作用給予系統一個機會，讓操作系統的調度器（scheduler）介入，檢查是否需要切換到其他任務。

主函式 list_sort :

src :

void list_sort(void *priv, struct list_head *head, list_cmp_func_t cmp)
{
    struct list_head *list = head->next, *pending = NULL;
    size_t count = 0;
    if (list == head->prev)  // 0 或 1 個元素，直接返回
        return;

    head->prev->next = NULL;  // 斷開循環，轉為單向鏈表

    do {
        size_t bits;
        struct list_head **tail = &pending;
        for (bits = count; bits & 1; bits >>= 1)
            tail = &(*tail)->prev;
        if (likely(bits)) {
            struct list_head *a = *tail, *b = a->prev;
            a = merge(priv, cmp, b, a);
            a->prev = b->prev;
            *tail = a;
        }
        list->prev = pending;
        pending = list;
        list = list->next;
        pending->next = NULL;
        count++;
    } while (list);

    list = pending;
    pending = pending->prev;
    for (;;) {
        struct list_head *next = pending->prev;
        if (!next)
            break;
        list = merge(priv, cmp, pending, list);
        pending = next;
    }
    merge_final(priv, cmp, head, pending, list);
}

註解研讀

/**
 * list_sort - sort a list
 * @priv: private data, opaque to list_sort(), passed to @cmp
 * @head: the list to sort
 * @cmp: the elements comparison function
 */
  • @priv：私有資料，對 list_sort 來說是不透明的指標，會直接傳遞給比較函數 @cmp。這允許 @cmp 在比較元素時使用額外的上下文資料。
  • @head：要排序的linked list的頭部，指標指向串列的起始節點。
  • @cmp：自訂的比較函數，由使用者提供，用來定義兩個節點之間的順序關係。
/*
 * The comparison function @cmp must return > 0 if @a should sort after
 * @b ("@a > @b" if you want an ascending sort), and <= 0 if @a should
 * sort before @b *or* their original order should be preserved.

描述比較函數 @cmp 的行為
大於 0：表示 @a 應排在 @b 後面。例如，若要升序排序，則 @a > @b 時返回大於 0。
小於等於 0：表示 @a 應排在 @b 前面，或兩者相等時保持原始順序。list_sort 是一個穩定排序（stable sort），即相等元素的相對順序不會改變。@cmp 總是以輸入串列中較早出現的元素作為 @a，因此無需明確區分 @a < @b 和 @a == @b 的情況，只需返回 <= 0 即可。

/*
The comparison function must adhere to specific mathematical properties:
- Antisymmetry: cmp(@a, @b) must return the opposite sign of cmp(@b, @a).
- Transitivity: if cmp(@a, @b) <= 0 and cmp(@b, @c) <= 0, then cmp(@a, @c) <= 0.

描述@cmp所需的數學屬性要求

  • 反對稱性（Antisymmetry）：
    cmp(@a, @b) 和 cmp(@b, @a) 的返回值符號必須相反。例如，若 cmp(@a, @b) > 0，則 cmp(@b, @a) < 0。這避免了邏輯矛盾（如 @a > @b 且 @b > @a）。
  • 傳遞性（Transitivity）：
    若 cmp(@a, @b) <= 0 且 cmp(@b, @c) <= 0，則 cmp(@a, @c) <= 0 必須成立。這確保排序結果的一致性和正確性。
/*
This is compatible with two styles of @cmp function:
- The traditional style which returns <0 / =0 / >0, or
- Returning a boolean 0/1.

@cmp的兩種style

  • traditional style：
    返回 < 0（@a < @b）、= 0（@a == @b）、> 0（@a > @b），類似標準 C 的 strcmp。
  • boolean style：
    返回 0（@a <= @b）或 1（@a > @b）。
    這種方式更簡潔，可能節省少量 CPU 週期。例如，block/blk-mq.c 中的 plug_ctx_cmp 就採用此
/*
A good way to write a multi-word comparison is::
	if (a->high != b->high)
		return a->high > b->high;
	if (a->middle != b->middle)
		return a->middle > b->middle;
	return a->low > b->low;

@cmp 多欄位比較範例
假設節點有 high、middle、low 三個欄位，依序比較。
先比較 high，若不同，根據 high 的值決定順序；若相同，再比較 middle，最後比較 low。這種方式實現了字典序（lexicographical order），常用於多條件排序。

/*
This mergesort is as eager as possible while always performing at least
2:1 balanced merges. Given two pending sublists of size 2^k, they are
merged to a size-2^(k+1) list as soon as we have 2^k following elements.

說明此list_sort的eager體現在條件允許時盡早合併子串列，以免最後很長一條merge一小條不balanced的case。且實施的準則為 2:1 balanced merges ，當有兩個大小為 2^k 的子串列，且後續有 2^k 個元素時，將這兩個子串列合併成一個大小為 2^(k+1) 的串列，旨在先merge小。

/*
Thus, it will avoid cache thrashing as long as 3*2^k elements can
fit into the cache. Not quite as good as a fully-eager bottom-up
mergesort, but it does use 0.2*n fewer comparisons.

只要快取能容納 32^k 個元素，就能避免cache thrashing，相較於fully-eager bottom-up
mergesort，這種方法減少了約 0.2n 次比較。

/*
The merging is controlled by "count", the number of elements in the
pending lists.
Each time we increment "count", we set one bit (bit k) and clear
bits k-1 .. 0. Each time this happens (except the very first time
for each bit, when count increments to 2^k), we merge two lists of
size 2^k into one list of size 2^(k+1).

描述 count 的角色為表示待處理串列中的元素總數，用來決定何時進行合併。且描述了運作機制 :
位元操作：
每次 count 增加時，設置某個位元（bit k），並清除低於 k 的位元（k-1 至 0）。
合併觸發：
當 count 達到 2^k 的奇數倍（除了第一次達到 2^k），觸發兩個大小為 2^k 的串列合併，生成一個 2^(k+1) 的串列。

/*
This merge happens exactly when the count reaches an odd multiple of
2^k, which is when we have 2^k elements pending in smaller lists.

描述 count 機制的merge時機 : 當 count 為 2^k 的奇數倍時，表示有 2^k 個元素在較小的待處理串列中，此時可以安全合併兩個 2^k 大小的串列。後續合併時，生成兩個 2^(k+1) 的串列，接著它們會被合併成 2^(k+2)，確保待處理串列數量不超過兩個。

/*
This merge happens exactly when the count reaches an odd multiple of
2^k, which is when we have 2^k elements pending in smaller lists.

描述pending list的狀態，大小為 2^k 的待處理串列數量取決於：

  1. count 的第 k 位狀態。
  2. 第 k-1 位狀態（k = 0 時，假設 bit -1 恆為 1）。
  3. 高位是否為非零（即 count >= 2^(k+1)）。
/*
There are six states we distinguish:
0:  00x: 0 pending of size 2^k;           x pending of sizes < 2^k
1:  01x: 0 pending of size 2^k; 2^(k-1) + x pending of sizes < 2^k
2: x10x: 0 pending of size 2^k; 2^k     + x pending of sizes < 2^k
3: x11x: 1 pending of size 2^k; 2^(k-1) + x pending of sizes < 2^k
4: y00x: 1 pending of size 2^k; 2^k     + x pending of sizes < 2^k
5: y01x: 2 pending of size 2^k; 2^(k-1) + x pending of sizes < 2^k
(merge and loop back to state 2)

描述6種states
x 表示任意位元，y 表示非零高位。
0：00x - 無 2^k 大小的串列，x 個小於 2^k 的串列。
1：01x - 無 2^k ，2^(k-1) + x 個小於 2^k。
2：x10x - 無 2^k ，2^k + x 個小於 2^k。
3：x11x - 1 個 2^k ，2^(k-1) + x 個小於 2^k。
4：y00x - 1 個 2^k ,2^k + x 個小於 2^k。
5：y01x - 2 個 2^k， 2^(k-1) + x 個小於 2^k，觸發合併後回到狀態 2。

/*
We gain lists of size 2^k in the 2->3 and 4->5 transitions and
merge them away in the 5->2 transition.
When we reach the end of the input, we merge all the pending
lists, from smallest to largest.

生成 : 2->3 和 4->5：當 bit k-1 為 1 且高位非零時，生成 2^k 大小的串列(state 5)。
合併 : 5->2：合併兩個 2^k 的串列，生成 2^(k+1)，並回到state 2
最終合併：處理完所有輸入後，將所有待處理串列從小到大合併，完成排序。

總結 : list_sort 透過 count 控制合併時機，實現 2:1 balanced merge。它優化了cache使用（需容納 32^k 元素）和比較次數（減少 0.2n 次），特別適合資料能放入 L1 快取的情況。使用者可透過 @cmp 和 @priv 靈活定義排序邏輯

函式流程

  1. guard clause與初始化 :
    • 若list只有 0 或 1 個元素，直接返回。
    • 將circular list斷開，轉為單向鏈表。
    • 初始化 *pending（待合併子列表）為 NULL，count 為 0。
  2. 主循環：處理輸入 (merge時機為 count 達到某個 2^k 的奇數倍時，觸發大小為 2^k 的子列表合併)
    • 計算合併點：
      • 檢查 count 的二進位表示，找到最低位的 0（記為 bits）。
      • 沿著 pending 的 prev 指針前進 bits 步，定位需要合併的子列表。
    • 執行合併：
      • 若 bits != 0，取出 pending 中的兩個子列表 a 和 b，使用 merge 合併，並更新 pending。
    • 加入新元素：
      • 從輸入 list 中取出一個元素，作為大小為 1 的子列表，加入 pending。
      • 將 count 加 1。
  3. 最終合併
    • 從 pending 開始，逐對合併子列表，使用 merge
    • 使用 merge_final 合併剩餘兩個sublists，並恢復doubly linked list

list_sort 優點特性

  • 合併策略 :
    • 自底向上：從大小為 1 的子列表開始，逐步合併。
    • 平衡合併：通過 count 控制，確保每次合併的子列表大小比例接近 2:1。
    • 減少合併次數：僅在必要時合併，減少約 20% 的比較次數。
  • stable
    • 在 merge 和 merge_final 中，當 cmp(a, b) <= 0 時優先選 a，保證相等元素的原始順序
  • 效能考量
    • cache友好：平衡合併使子列表大小適中，適合快取。
    • 上下文切換：merge_final 中的計數器設計允許調度器介入
  • count 設計
    • 每次 count 增加，檢查其最低位的 0，觸發對應大小的子列表合併。bitwise 運算是非常快速的操作，尤其是在核心程式（如作業系統核心）中，對效能要求很高時，這種方法能顯著提升速度。
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2025/04/23 一對一討論問答簡記

參與者: bevis30401@gmail.com embedded.master2015@gmail.com Ching-Chun (Jim) Huang

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