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# System prepended metadata

title: Reading Responses (Set 1)

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# Reading Responses (Set 1)

## How the Web Works

### 01/30/21

Although most people in the 21st century are familiar with the Internet, a majority of those people would not be able to explain what goes on behind the scenes when searching a web address. To put it simply, there are two types of computers connected to the web called clients and servers. Clients are what typical web users use—for example a mobile phone, and servers are computers that store web pages, sites, and apps to be retrieved by client devices. Many people (including me) have probably heard of IP addresses, but I did not understand exactly what they were until now. An IP address is the “real web address” that matches up with the address that you type into your browser. This is what the client is searching for on the server when retrieving a website.

It is very easy for outsiders to tamper with your connection when searching for a website on the Internet. This is why establishing a secure connection is important, especially when sending sensitive information such as credit card data and personal addresses. While I was unable to understand most of the technical aspects of cryptography, I was able to grasp the basics of public key encryption. Essentially, each party has both a public and private key that are linked to each other. The public key is used for encryption, while the private key is used for decryption. The encryption prevents unauthorized users from accessing the messages being transmitted.

I am personally interested in how VPNs protect data. I know that VPNs work by masking your IP address, but I wonder how different it is from basic web encryption, and why they are used for extra protection. In the past, I have used VPNs in China to break past the Great Firewall, and also to download torrents. Is the security provided by VPNs necessary for everyday use, or only for special situations?

## The Spread of Fake News

### 02/05/21

Almost everyone knows what "fake news" is in the year 2021. So why is it still so effective? A 2016 BuzzFeed News analysis found that the most viral false election stories generated more engagement on Facebook than the top election stories from major news outlets. Ironically, a majority of the false election stories were pro-Donald Trump, despite Trump’s constant criticism of the “fake news media.” BuzzFeed News reports that the top 5 fake election stories by Facebook engagement includes eyebrow raising titles such as “Pope Francis Shocks World, Endorses Donald Trump for President, Releases Statement” and “WikiLeaks CONFIRMS Hillary Sold Weapons to ISIS...Then Drops Another BOMBSHELL! Breaking News”.

So how are such sensationalist stories garnering so much traction? Danah Boyd writes about confirmation bias, and how people are more likely to “double down on their beliefs” even when presented with information that disproves them. Many Americans are also raised on the principles of independence, and are taught to be the “sole proprietors of knowledge” when it comes to information. So if a conservative distrusts liberal media sources and so-called “expert figures,” then they will likely turn to right-wing fake news sites that reinforce their personal and experience-based beliefs.

However, Boyd also mentions that liberals may blow up fake news stories more than conservatives in an effort to prove that they’re fake. This plays right into what fake news sites want, which is high engagement. Additionally, the political beliefs of Americans are so polarizing that most conservatives won’t listen to liberals and vice versa, so calling out right-wing fake news isn’t going to stop people from believing the story. Sometimes it is better to ignore outlandish headlines instead of blowing them up more to where they can reach people who will believe it. I believe that those who are on the active lookout for misleading information can learn to recognize it, but the large percentage that simply don’t care will continue to be willingly manipulated by media misinformation.


## The Science of Learning

### 02/09/21

An alarmingly large number of students are learning incorrectly. At least, this is what Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel claim in their 2014 book Make It Stick: The Science of Successful Learning. According to them, ineffective learning strategies have been passed down by education institutions for years. These methods are so ingrained into our society that many teachers and universities still endorse them to this day. But the truth is, people misunderstand what it means to learn. Brown, Roediger, and McDaniel’s main claim is that retrieval practice is much more effective than rereading and massed practice of a skill. Many students like to study by going over textbook passages, highlighting their notes, and memorizing vocab words. However, this kind of practice does not produce any long-term mastery of knowledge. Instead, students should practice recalling information by quizzing themselves, putting concepts into their own words, and applying what they learned to different situations. Retrieval practice can streamline your studying by informing you of what you still don’t know yet, and also connect new information to what you already know, making it easier to recall in the future.

I have seen the difference between using effective and ineffective learning strategies in my own studying. The most recent example is last semester when I took Financial Management. On the first midterm, I made the mistake of only reading over my notes instead of actively practicing the formulas I was taught, which led to a C on the exam. I didn’t gain enough mastery over the concept and was unable to apply them to any of the problems. For the second midterm, I studied by applying every formula to practice problems, and my effort paid off as I got a B on the exam. It goes to show that retrieval practice is indeed more effective than rereading.

## Exam Review

### 02/26/21

**Questions**

1. Which of the following ensures that data is reliably delivered across the Internet?
    a. HTTP
    b. Domain name server (DNS)
    c. Internet protocol (IP)
    d. Transmission control protocol (TCP)
2. Which law states that the value of social networks is proportional to the number of possible groups and/or affiliations?
    a. Sarnoff's Law
    b. Metcalfe's Law
    c. Reed's Law
    d. Sturgeon's Law
3. What is the difference between spaced, interleaved, and varied practice?
4. What is the difference between a filter bubble, and echo chamber, and a reputation silo?

**Answers**

1. D - TCP
    Mnemonic: Use the mail delivery metaphor. The TCP is like the shipping insurance that protects the package.
2. C - Reed's Law
    Important to remember: Connections increase exponentially. Raise 2 to the power of the number of nodes to determine the total value.
3. Spaced practice means spreading out your review sessions so that you can recall information on the threshold of forgetting it. Interleaved practice means mixing up the skills you are practicing. For example, for a public speaking class, you might practice both speaking slowly/clearly and controlling your body movements. Varied practice means switching up your approach to a single skill. Using the public speaking example again, if you're working on your body movements, you can practice in front of a mirror, a pretend audience like a stuffed animal, or record yourself.
4. A filter bubble is what occurs as a result of the algorithms we encounter online. Essentially, these algorithms "filter out" information we dislike/disagree to ensure that that we enjoy what we see. Echo chambers are created by filter bubbles: they refer to environments where people only encounter like-minded opinions, which can lead to more extremism. Reputation silos are a specific type of filter bubble that is controlled by commercial interests. For example, online shopping sites use cookies to track what you're viewing and send you targeted advertisements.

## Tech's Diversity Problem

### 03/05/21

Although most industries have a problem with sexism and an overall underrepresentation of women, this gender disparity is especially apparent in STEM fields, and even more so within tech. Since the 1970s, the percentage of women in computing occupations has actually gone down. Some people, such as former Google employee James Damore, believe that the gender gap in tech is due to biological differences. This ideology is obviously very offensive in the 21st century. To provide knowledge on why  the gender gap actually exists, Jeong and Becker (2019) discuss the history of women in computing and how the current tech culture drives women away in their article “Science Doesn’t Explain Tech’s Diversity Problem—History Does.” First, they note that programming was originally done by women during WWII. Back then, the job was seen as not prestigious and unintellectual. But when the power of computing became more evident, men suddenly began replacing women in these jobs and getting paid more while they were at it. They also changed the cultural perception of a programmer to a “beardy weirdo in sandals.” Programmers became stereotyped as people who disliked personal interaction and dealing with emotions. Eventually, big employers like SDC and IBM began using personality profiles and aptitude tests to hire programmers, which systematically shut out women due to its functional bias.
	
Reagle (2015) similarly notes a problem with the narrowness of “geek identities” in free culture movement communities. Similar to programmers, geeks are known for their “unkempt beards,” “passionate intensity for computers and unkempt appearance,” and “rigid and argumentative discursive style.” This geek identity strongly correlates with being white and masculine. Thus, in both sectors, women end up feeling alienated for not being part of this “boys’ club.”
