# 緒章:自然地理與地理技術

## :rocket:地理觀點
### 討論面相
* 現象-自然、人地、人文
* 描述-地點、空間、尺度
* 整合-實像、描述、模型、GIS、運算

### 基本元素
* 尺度:程度、層面
* 圖像:符號、空間表徵
* 過程:因果關係

## :rocket:地理學

### 系統地理學
* 範疇:研究地理學各種自然、人文要素的科學(亦稱通論地理學)
* 分類:
1.自然地理學(地形、氣候、水文、土壤、生物)
2.人文地理學(人口、經濟、聚落、交通、政治)

### 區域地理學
* 範疇:研究區域的特色(綜合區域內外的地理要素)
* 發展:
1.早期: 區域探索、治理
2.今日: 社會、空間規劃

### 地理技術
* 意義:研究地理議題的方法與技術
* 方法:全球定位系統、地圖學、遙測、計量地理學、地理資訊系統、問卷、訪談

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#### :bulb: **補充:**
1.地圖-投影、比例尺、圖示、種類..
2.GIS-運作程序-資料蒐集→資料輸入和儲存→資料整理→分析→展示與輸出
3.遙測-感應&光譜/雷達、光學雷達→數位圖像
4.GPS-全球衛星定位系統(空間星座/地面監控)
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## :rocket:地球系統
### 圖解
### 地球變遷
* 碳循環- 人為因素→海洋與大氣含碳量異常
* 全球氣候- 全球暖化、極端氣候
* 汙染- 空氣、水、生態與人類
* 生物- 生物多樣性下降

## :memo: 參考圖解



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#### :book: 詞彙:
1.**Earth realms** (n.)The natural systems of physical geography operate in four great Earth spheres.
2.**atmosphere** (n.)A gaseous layer that surrounds the Earth. It receives heat and moisture from the surface and redistributes them, returning some heat and all the moisture to the surface. The atmosphere also supplies vital elements-carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen-that are needed to sustain life.
3.**lithosphere** (n.)The outermost solid layer of Earth establishes the platform for most life-forms. The solid rock of the lithosphere bears a shallow layer of soil in which nutrient elements become available to organism. The surface of the lithosphere is sculpted into landforms.
4.**hydrosphere** (n.)The liquid realm of the Earth which principally comprises the mass of water in the world's oceans. It also includes solid ice in mountain and continental glaciers, which, like liquid ocean and freshwater, is subject to flow under the influence of gravity. Within the atomosphere, water is found in the uppermost layers in soils and in groundwater reservoirs.
5.**biosphere** (n.) The biosphere encompasses all living organisms of the Earth. Life-forms on Earth utilize the gases of the atmosphere, the water of hydrosphere, and the nutrients of the lithosphere, and so the biosphere is dependent on all three of other great realms.
6.**life layer** (n.)As the sketch shows, the life layer is the layer of Earth's surface that supports nearly all of the Earth's life. It includes the land and ocean surface and the atmosphere in contact with them.
7.**Scale** (n.)Scale refers to the level of structure of organization at which a phenomenon is studied.
8.**Pattern** (n.)Pattern refers to the variation in a phenomenon that is seen at a particular scale.
9.**Process** (n.)Process describes how the factors that affect a phenomenon act to produce a pattern at a paticular scale.
10.**Global scale** (n.)At the global scale, the major surface features of the Earth and atmosphere circulation are readily visible.
11.**Continental scale** (n.)At the continental scale, climate determines the pattern of vegetation, wth reds, browns, and whites showing sparse vegetation cover and desert.
12.**Regional scale** (n.)At the regional scale. The herringbone patterns show conversion of forest to cropland on a grid pattern.
13.**Local scale** (n.)At the local scale, shown in this Landsat image of the Sanfrancisco Bay region, the details of development emerge, as well as the shape of individual landforms.
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# 轉動的地球
## :earth_americas: 主要概念
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1.Although the Earth appears in space photos to be a sphere(球), it is slightly(略為) flattened(扁平化) at the poles(極點) into a shape resembling(相似) an oblate(扁圓) ellipsoid(橢圓體) . The geoid(大地水準面) is a closer approximation(近似) of the Earth’ s true shape.
2.The Earth rotates on its axis(軸) once in 24 hours. The intersection(交點) of the axis(軸) of rotation(轉動) with the Earth’ s surface marks the North and South Poles(北極和南極) . The direction of rotation is counterclockwise(逆時針) when viewed from above the North Pole.
3.The Earth’ s rotation provides the daily alternation of sunlight and darkness(晝夜變換), the tides(潮汐), and a sideward turning(側轉) of the paths of ocean and air currents(氣流).
4.The geographic grid(網格) , which consists of parallels(緯線) and meridians(經線) , helps us mark locations on the globe. Great circles(大圓) always bisect(對分) the globe, but small circles do not.
5.Geographic location is labeled using latitude(緯度) and longitude(經度). The Equator(赤道) and the prime meridian(本初經線) act as references(參考點) to locate any point on Earth.
6.Map projections(地圖投影) display the Earth’s curved(彎曲) surface on a flat page(平面).
7.The polar projection(極方位投影) pictures the globe as we might view it from the North or South Pole(北極或南極). Meridians(經線) radiate(發散) outward from the poles(極點), like spokesin(輻射) a wheel(輪網).
8.The Mercator projection(麥卡托投影) converts(轉換) the curved geographic grid into a flat, rectangular(長方形) grid(網格) and best displays directional features(方向特徵). A straight line on a Mercator projection is a constant compass bearing(方向恆定).
9.Conformal maps(等形地圖) preserve the shape of individual features, such as islands or coastlines, while equalarea maps(等積地圖) show the areas of regions and continents accurately(準確地).
10.The Winkel Tripel projection(溫克爾投影) shows the entire globe while minimizing(極小化) distortion in shape(形狀扭曲), area, and scale, and is well suited to showing world maps of climate, vegetation, and soils.
11.Our system of timekeeping(計時) is oriented(定向) to the Sun ’s apparent(明顯的) motion(運動) in the sky. Solar noon(正午) marks the position of the Sun at its highest point in the sky each day. All locations on the same meridian(經線) experience solar noon at the same instant(瞬間).
12.We keep standard(規範) time in time zones(時區) according to standard meridians(標準經線) that are normally 15° apart. Since the Earth rotates(轉動) by 15° each hour, time zones normally differ by one hour.
13.At the International Date Line(國際時間線), the calendar(日曆) day changes—advancing(前進) a day for westward travel(向西), dropping back a day for eastward travel(向東).
14.Daylight saving time(日光節約時間) advances(增加) the clock by one hour. Most nations observe(觀察) daylight saving time(日光節約時間), although starting and ending dates may differ.
15.Atomic clocks(原子鐘) provide a very accurate basis(準確的基礎) for global timekeeping(計時). Civil time(民用時間) is kept in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC全球協約時間), which uses a day length of 86,400 seconds (24 hours) to match the Earth’ s rotation rate with respect(對應) to the Sun.
16.The Moon rotates and revolves(公轉) about the Earth in the same direction that the Earth revolves(公轉) around the Sun. The Moon’s rotation(旋轉) is synchronized(同步) with its revolution(公轉) so that one side always faces the Earth while the other side remains unseen.
17.The Earth’ s axis of rotation(轉軸) is tilted(傾斜) at an angle of 23½° from a perpendicular(垂直) to the plane(平面) of the ecliptic(黃道) and points to a fixed(固定) location in space. The seasons arise from the revolution(公轉) of the Earth in its orbit(軌道) around the Sun and this tilt(傾斜) of the Earth’s axis. The solstices(至點) and equinoxes(分點) mark the cycle of this revolution(公轉週期).
18.At the June(summer) solstice(夏至), the northern hemisphere(北半球) is tilted toward(傾向) the Sun. At the December (winter) solstice(冬至), the southern hemisphere(南半球) is tilted toward(傾向) the Sun. At the March and September equinoxes(春秋分), the Earth is tilted neither toward nor away(都不傾向) from the Sun, and day and night are of equal length(晝夜等長).

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## :rocket:地球的外觀
* 地球內物質分布和地球形狀有關，且地球內物質分布極不規則，故地球形狀不規則。

### 經緯線
* 緯度:法線與赤道的夾角 (赤道為基準)
* 經度:子午線切面與終切面的夾角 (子午線為基準)
### 大圓vs小圓
* 大圓線:通過球心的平面與地球相切之圓線 (大圓航線)
* 小圓線:平面不通過球心與地球相切之圓線
### 托勒密地圖
此圖為托勒密所繪製這張圖有顯明顯的經緯線，而且是專門給航海家所使用，然而托勒密他低估了地球半徑，所以這張地圖的地中海顯得相當龐大。
### 麥卡托投影
切線形狀不變、60°N大小放大兩倍、80°N大小放大6倍

## :rocket:地球運動
### 地球自轉


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#### :book: 詞彙
1.**axis** (n.) an imaginary straight line through its center and poles-a motion we refer to as rotation.
2.**paralles** (n.) Parallels of latitude divide the globe crosswise into rings.
3.**meridians** (n.) Meridians of longitude divide the globe from to pole.
4.**Equator** (n.) The Earth's longest parallel
5.**Great circles** (n.)A great circle is created when a plane passes through the Earth, intersecting the Earth's center.
6.**Small circles** (n.)Small circles are created when a plane passes through the Earth but does not intersect the center point.
7.**latitude** (n.)The latitude of a parallel is the angle between a point on the parallel and a point on the Equator at the same meridian, as measured from the Earth's center.
8.**longitude** (n.)The longitude of a meridian is the angle between a point on that meridian at the Equator and a point on the prime meridian at the Equator, as measured at the Earth's center.
9.**prime meridian** (n.)prime meridian is sometimes known as the Greenwich meridian because it passes through the old Royal Observatory at Greenwich, near London.
10.**compass bearing** (n.)方位正確
11.**grid** (n.)網格
12.**shape distorion** (n.)形狀扭曲
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# 地質與板塊
## :earth_asia: 主要概念
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1.Geologists(地質學家) trace the history of Earth through the geologic timescale(地質年代表), which has divisions(分區) of eons(代), eras(世), and periods(紀). The Cambrian period(寒武紀) marks the beginning of widespread life on Earth.
2.Endogenic process(內營力) of volcanic and tectonic(板塊構造) activity shape inital landforms, while exogenic process(外營力), such as erosion(侵蝕) and deposition(沉積) by running water, waves, wind, and glacial ice, sculpt(塑造) sequential landforms.
3.At the center of the Earth lies the core, a dense mass of liquid iron and nickel(鎳) that is solid at the very center. Enclosing the metallic(金屬的) core is the mantle(地函), composed of mafic rock(鐵鎂). The outermost(最外層) layer is the crust(地殼). Continental crust(大陸地殼) consist of two zones: a lighter zone of felsic rock(長岩) atop a denser zone of mafic rock(鐵鎂岩). Oceanic crust(海洋地殼) consists only of denser, mafic rock(鐵鎂岩).
4.The lithosphere(岩石圈), the outermost shell of rigid(硬的), brittle(脆的) rock, includes the crust(地殼) and an upper layer of the mantle(上地函). Below the lithosphere is the asthenosphere(軟流圈), a region of mantle in which mantle rock is soft or plastic(軟塑的). The lithosphere is divided into lithospheric plates(岩石圈板塊).
5.Minerals(礦物) are naturally occuring, inorganic substance(無機物), often with a crystalline structure(結晶構造)； they are largely composed of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium(鈣), sodium(鈉), potassium(鉀), and magnesium(鎂).
6.Rocks are naturally occuring assemblages(混合) of minerals(礦物). They fall into three major classes: igneous(火成岩), sedimentary(沉積岩), and metamorphic(變質岩).
7.Igneous rocks(火成岩) are largely composed of silicate(矽酸鹽) minerals. They are formed when magma cools and solidifies(固化). If magma erupts on the surface to cool rapidly as lava, the rocks formed are extrusive(噴出的) and have a fine(精細) crystal texture. If the magma cools slowly below the surface, the rocks are intrusive(侵入的) and the crystals are larger(粗大).
8.Felsic rock(長岩) contain mostly felsic(長岩) mineral(礦物) and are least dense of the rock types； mafic rocks(鐵鎂岩), containing mostly mafic(鐵鎂岩) mineral(礦物), are denser； and ultramafic rocks(超鐵鎂岩) are most dense. Because felsic rocks(長岩) are least dense, they are generally found in the upper layers of the Earth's crust, while mafic(鐵鎂岩) and ultramafic rocks(超鐵鎂岩) are generally found in lower layers.
9.Plutons(深成巖體) are bodies of intrusive igneous rocks. Types of plutons include batholiths, sills , and dikes.
10.Sedimentary(沉積岩) rocks are formed in layers, or strata(地層), composed of transported(搬運的) rock fragments(碎屑) called sediment(沉積物). Clastic sedimentary rocks(碎屑沉積岩) are composed of sediment(沉積物) that usually accumulate on ocean floors(海床). As the layers are buried more and more deeply, water is pressed out and particles are cemented(壓密) together. Sandstone(砂岩) and shale(頁岩) are common example.
11.Chemical precipitation(化學沉積物) also produces sedimentary rocks, such as limestone(石灰石). Organic sediment(有機沉積物) is composed of tissues of plants and animals- peat(泥炭) is an example. Coal(煤炭), petroleum(石油), and natural gas(天然氣) are hydrocarbon(烃類) compounds(化合物) occuring(發生) in sedimentary rocks(沉積岩), commonly known as fossil fuels(石油燃料).
12.Metamorphic rocks(變質岩) are formed when igneous(火成) or sedimentary rocks(沉積岩) are exposed to heat and pressure. Shale(頁岩) is altered to slate(板岩) or schist(片岩)；sandstone(砂岩) become quartzite(石英岩), limestone(石灰石) become marble(大理石)； and intrusive(侵入性) igneous rocks(火成岩) or clastic(碎屑) sediments(沉積物) metamorphose(變質) into gneiss(片麻岩).
13.In the cycle of rock change, there are two environment. Rocks are altered, fragmented(碎裂), and depositied(沉積) as sediment(沉積物) in the surface environment. In the deep environment, sediment or preexisting rock(母岩) is altered by heat and pressure or melted to form magma. It reaches the surface environment by extrusion(擠壓), as lava, or is revealed(顯露) by erosion(侵蝕).
14.The Earth's global topography(地形) consists of major features, such as mountain chains(山脈), midoceanic ridges(中洋脊), high plateaus(高原), and ocean trenches(海溝).
15.The Shuttle Radar Technology Mission(衛星雷達系統) used a radar system to draw precise maps of detailed surface topography(地形).
16.Continental landmasses(陸塊) consist of active belts(活動帶) of mountain making and inactive regions of old, stable rock. Mountain belts, known as alpine chains(阿爾卑斯山脈), are built by volcanism and tectonic activity(火山與板塊活動).
17.Continetal shields(大陸棚) are regions of low-lying igneous (火成) and metamorphic rocks(變質岩). They may be exposed or covered by layers of sedimentary rocks(沉積岩). Ancient mountain roots(山根) lie within some shield regions.
18.Continental-scale(大陸規模) landforms include widely spaced mountains, plains , mountains, depression(低地), high plateaus(高原), hills and low plateaus(台地), and ice sheets(冰帽).
19.The ocean basins(海洋盆地) are marked by a midoceanic ridge (中洋脊) with its central axial rift(軸裂). This ridge occurs at the site of crustal spreading(地殼擴張). Where two lithospheric plates(岩石圈板塊) collide, deep trenches(海溝) form as one plate is pushed under the other.
20.Alfred Wegener(緯格納) assembled substantial(充實的) evidence showing that the major continents(大陸) were once assembled into a supercontinent(超級大陸) called Pangaea(盤古), which subsequently drifted apart(分開).
21.Patterns of magnetism(磁性) in the rocks of ocean basins(海洋盆地) illustrate that younger rocks are nearer to the spreading zones(張裂帶), and the other, far away.
22.The union(眾) of continents(大陸) into supercontinents(超級大陸), and their later breakup, is a repeating process that has probably occurred half a dozen times or more throughout the Earth's geologic history.
23.Plate tectonics(板塊構造) is the body of knowledge about lithospheric plates(岩石圈板塊) and their motions(運動).
24.Extension(張裂) occurs when the lithosphere(岩石圈) is pulled apart(拉開), causing fault(斷層). Compression(聚合) occurs when plates are pushed together, producing folds(摺曲) and thrust sheets(推覆物).
25.The continental lithosphere(岩石圈) includes the thicker, lighter continental crust and a rigid(硬) layer of mantle rock(鐵鎂岩) beneath. The oceanic lithosphere comprises the thinner, denser oceanic crust and rigid mantle below.
26.The lithosphere is fractured(碎裂) and broken into a set of lithospheric plates(岩石圈板塊), large and small, that move with respect(連帶) to one another.
27.Where plates move apart, a spreading boundary(張裂邊界) occurs. At converging boundaries(聚合邊界), plates collide.
28.When the oceanic lithosphere(海洋岩石圈) and continental lithosphere(大陸岩石圈) collide, the denser oceanic lithosphere plunges(沉沒) beneath the continental lithospheric plate in a process called subduction(隱沒). A trench(海溝) marks the site of downplunging(隱沒). Some subducted(隱沒) oceanic crust(海洋地殼) melts and rises to the to the surface, producing volcanoes.
29.At transform boundaries(橫移邊界), plates move past another on a transform fault(斷層).
30.In a continental rupture(大陸破裂), extensional tectonic(張裂板塊) forces fracture(斷裂) and move a continental plate(大陸板塊) in opposite direction, creating a rift valley(裂谷). Eventually, the rift valley(裂谷) widens and opens to the ocean. New ocean crust(海洋地殼) forms as spreading continues.
31.The closing of an ocean basin(海洋盆地) can cause two plates of lithospheric crust(大陸地殼) to collide, and subduction(隱沒) shapes an island arc of volcanic islands(火山島弧).
32.An arc-continent collision(弧陸碰撞) occurs when continued subduction(隱沒) draws a passive continental margin up against an island arc(島弧), forming an orogen(造山帶).
33.Eventually, the closing produces a continent-continent collision(陸陸碰撞), in which two continental plates(大陸板塊) are welded together(銜接) in a zone of metamorphic rock, called a continental suture.
34.The Wilson cycle(威爾遜循環) of ocean-basin(海洋盆地) opeaning and closing has occurred many times in the geologic past. It is part of a cycle of formation(構成) of supercontinents(超級大陸) in which the continents(大陸) form one large landmass(陸塊), split apart(分開), and then hundreds of millions of years later rejoin in(重聚) a new supercontinent(超級大陸).
35.Plate movement(板塊運動) are thought to be powered by radiogenic heat(輻射熱). The exact mechanism(機制) is unknown, but may include convection currents(對流) in the plastic mantle(軟地函) rock of the asthenosphere(軟流圈), gravity gliding(重力滑動) of plates(板塊) away from an uplifted(抬升的) axial rift(軸裂), and the gravitational(引力) pull of descending(下降的) plates into a subduction zone(隱沒帶).

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## :fire:板塊與火山地形

### 主要概念
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1.The motion(運動) of lithospheric(岩石圈) plates(板塊) in plate tectonics(構造) creates distinctive rock structures that are then eroded(侵蝕) into characteristic landforms.
2.At converging(聚合) boundaries(邊界), where continental(大陸) lithospheric(岩石圈) plates(板塊) collide, compression(擠壓) produces folds(摺曲): anticlines(背斜upbends) and synclines(向斜troughs).
3.Eroded fold belts create a ridge-and-valley(嶺谷) landscape as weaker rocks become valleys(谷) and stronger rocks form mountain ridges(嶺). Where an anticline(背斜) contains weak rocks at its core, erosion(侵蝕) may create an anticlinal(背斜) valley. Synclinal(向斜) mountains occur where resistant(抵抗的) rocks in the center of a synclinal are exposed.
4.More intense(激烈) folding and heating shapes belts(帶) of metamorphic(變質) rock in which weak rocks(slate and marble板岩與大理石) underlie(造成) valleys(山谷), and strong rocks (schists, gneiss and quartzite片岩、片麻岩與石英岩) underlie ridges(山嶺).
5.A steplike(階梯狀) bend(彎曲) of rock layers, or monocline(單斜), can erode into hogback ridges(豬背嶺) and flatirons(單面山).
6.Where rock layers are warped(彎曲) upward into a sedimentary dome(丘), erosion produces a circular(圓形) arrangement of rock layers. Resistant(強抗) strata(地層) form hogbacks flanking(側翼) circular valleys underlain(造成) by weaker rocks. Igneous rocks are often revealed(顯露) in the center.
7.Exposed batholiths(母岩), often composed of uniform(均質), resistant(強抗) igneous(火成) rocks, produce mountainous regions. Monadnocks(弧山) of intrusive igneous rock stand up above a plain of weaker rocks.
8.At passive plate margins(邊界), on gently(漸漸地) sloping coastal(沿海) plain(平原) strata(地層), erosion removes weaker strata(clay黏土) to form lowlands(低地), leaving more resistant strata(sand砂岩) to become cuestas(單面山).
9.Faults(斷層) are fractures(斷裂) in crustal(地殼 rock created when rocks move in different directions. The four main types of fault are normal(正), strike-slip(平移) or transcurrent(橫移), reverse(逆), and overthrust faults(逆).
10.Normal faults are commonly produced by crustal rifting(地殼張裂). They create fault scarps(斷層崖), grabens(地塹), and horsts(地壘). The Rift Valley(裂谷) of East Africa is an example.
11.Earthquakes occur when rock layers, bent by tectonic activity(板塊運動), suddenly fracture(斷開) and move, creating seismic waves(地震波).
12.As an earthquake occurs, earthquake waves move
outward through the rock from the focus(震源), which lies below the epicenter(震央).
13.The energy released by an earthquake is measured by the Richter scale(芮氏規模表).
14.Many earthquakes are associated with tectonic features(板塊構造) such as subduction boundaries(隱沒帶), transform boundaries(轉換邊界), island arcs(島弧), mountain arcs(山弧), and axial rifts(軸裂). But some large earthquakes occur within continental plates, far from plate boundaries.
15.Subduction-zone(隱沒帶) earthquakes can be very large. In
addition to shaking the ground, they can generate
highly destructive tsunami waves that travel from their
source in ever-widening(不斷擴大) circles.
16.The San Andreas Fault is a major strike-slip fault(平移斷層)
located near two great urban(市區) areas—Los Angeles and
San Francisco. The potential for a severe earthquake
on this fault is high, and the probability(可能性) of a major
Earth movement increases every year.
17.Spreading-center(張裂) earthquakes are associated with midoceanic ridges and produce moderate(中等) earthquakes.
18.Some large earthquakes occur far from active plate
boundaries. The New Madrid(新馬德里), Missouri(密西里周), earthquake of 1811 is an example. Earthquakes can also occur on blind faults(盲斷層), those not apparent at the surface.
19.Volcanoes are landforms marking the eruption of lava
at the Earth ’s surface. They are frequently found near
subduction boundaries(隱沒帶) and on or near axial rifts(軸裂). At a hotspot(熱點), an upwelling plume(上升流) of basaltic magma (玄武岩漿)creates shield(盾狀) volcanoes.
20.Volcanic eruptions are a very severe form of environmental hazard(風險). Lava flows, red-hot avalanches(雪崩), showers of volcanic debris(碎屑), and mudflows called lahars(火山泥流) are destructive and deadly features of eruptions.
21.Felsic(長岩) lavas are thick, viscous(黏性的), and gassy(噴氣的), and form stratovolcanoes(錐狀火山). Mafic(鐵美岩) lavas are thin, less viscous(黏性的), and contain little gas; they form shield volcanoes(盾狀火山).
22.Remote sensing of volcanoes reveals their distinctive
shapes and appearances. Satellite instruments(衛星儀器) can
detect and monitor volcanic eruptions.
23.Stratovolcanoes(錐狀火山), shaped by sluggish(緩慢的) felsic(長岩) lavas and showers of tephra(火山屑), have steep(陡峭的) slopes and tend(趨向) toward explosive eruptions that can form calderas(破火山口). Erosion(侵蝕) of stratovolcanoes ultimately leaves a landscape of lava mesas(熔岩台), volcanic necks(火山頸), and dikes(岩脈) .
24.Shield volcanoes(盾狀火山) are broadly rounded(環狀) domes built from flows of thin, mafic (basaltic玄武) lavas. The Hawaiian(夏威夷) Islands are a good example of shield volcanoes (盾狀火山)of different ages.
25.Where hot rock material close to the surface heats
groundwater to high temperatures, we find hot springs(溫泉) and geysers(噴泉). Hot, pressurized groundwater can be used as a power source for generation of electricity.
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# 大氣的溫度
### :eagle:主要概念
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1.Carbon dioxide(CO~2~) is one of several greenhouse gases(溫室氣體) that trap(困住) heat radiation(熱輻射) leaving the Earth. As a result of fossil fuel(化石燃料) burning, the amount of carbon dioxide(CO~2~) has increased very significantly(顯著) since(當) global industrialization(工業化), and will probably continue to do so for the next century.
2.Future increases in carbon dioxide(CO~2~) and other greenhouse gases(溫室氣體) will depend on(取決於) economic growth, efficiency of energy use(能源使用的效率), and substitution(配套) of alternative sources of energy(替代能源).
3.Air temperature is influenced by latitude(緯度), surface type(地表), coastal or interior(沿海或內陸) location, elevation(海拔), and air and ocean circulation patterns.
4.Radiation flows into(進入) and out of(出去) the surface of a substance(物質表面). The energy balance(能量平衡) of the ground surface(地表) is determined by net radiation(淨輻射), conduction(傳導) to the soil, and latent heat(潛熱) transfer(轉換) and convection(對流) to and from the atmosphere(大氣圈).
5.Air temperature(大氣溫度) is measured(測量) at 1.2 m (4 ft英尺) above the surface(地表). Weather stations(氣象測站) take daily(每日) minimum(最小) and maximum(最大) temperature(氣溫) measurements(測量). The mean(折衷的) daily(每日) temperature(氣溫) is the average(平均) of minimum(最大) and maximum(最小) temperatures(氣溫).
6.Temperatures of air(氣溫) and soil(土壤) **at** or **very close to** the ground surface(地表) are more variable(變化的) than air temperature measured at standard height(標準高度).
7.Surface characteristics(地表特性) also affect(影響) temperatures. Rural surfaces(鄉村地表) are generally(通常) moist(潮濕), and slow to heat and cool(溫度變化慢), while urban surfaces(都市地表) are dry, and readily(容易) heat and cool(比熱小). Transpiration(蒸散) of water from plant leaves and evaporation(蒸發) from moist(潮濕) soil surfaces(土壤表面) is termed(被稱之為) evapotranspiration(蒸散作用).
8.The difference between rural and urban(鄉村和都市) surfaces(地表) creates(造就) an urban heat island effect(都市熱島效應) that makes cities warmer than surrounding areas(周圍區域). Waste heat(多餘的熱量) from urban activities(都市活動) also signifi cantly(顯著地) raises(提高) air temperatures of cities(都市的氣溫).
9.Air temperatures(氣溫) observed(觀測) at mountain locations(山區) are lower(更低) with higher elevation(隨著高海拔); and day-night temperature differences(日夜的溫差) increase with elevation(隨著海拔高度而上升).
10.When air temperature increases with altitude(海拔), a temperature inversion(逆溫效應) is present(表現出來). This can develop(發展) on clear nights(晴朗的夜晚) when the surface loses longwave radiation(長波輻射-太陽的輻射) to space(地表).
11.The wind chill index(風寒指數) combines the effects of temperature(氣溫的效應) and wind to describe how cold the air feels to a person outdoors(體感溫度). The heat index(溫度指數) couples(連結著) temperature(氣溫) and relative humidity(相關的溼度) to provide(提供) a measure(規準) of how hot the air feels(冷與熱的體感).
12.Air temperatures normally fall with altitude(海拔高度) in the lower atmosphere(低氣壓). The decrease in air temperature (氣溫)with increasing altitude(海拔) is called the lapse rate(氣溫垂直遞減率). The average value(平均值) of decrease with altitude(隨海拔的遞減) is the environmental temperature lapse rate(環境氣溫垂直遞減率) :
6.49°C/1000 m (3.56°F/1000 ft).
13.Temperatures decrease(氣溫降低) with increasing altitude(海拔上升) in the lowest layer of the atmosphere(底部的大氣層), or troposphere(對流層). This layer includes abundant water vapor(豐富的水氣) that condenses(凝結) into clouds of water droplets(小水滴) with aerosol particles(氣懸膠體粒子) at their centers.
14.Above the troposphere(對流層) is the stratosphere(平流層), in which temperature(氣溫) stays uniform(保持一致) or increases slightly(略上升) with elevation(海拔). Winds in the stratosphere(平流層) are strong and persistent(持久的). The stratosphere contains the ozone layer(臭氧層) , which absorbs harmful ultraviolet energy(吸收紫外線).
15.The daily cycle(循環) of air temperature is driven(驅動) largely by net radiation(淨輻射), which is positive(正值-吸熱) during the day and negative(負值-散熱) at night. Net radiation depends on insolation(曝曬), which is a function of latitude(緯度) and season.
16.Land and water contrasts(相對) affect both daily and annual(每年) temperature cycles. Water bodies heat and cool more slowly than land(水的比熱大，溫度變化速度小), so maritime locations(靠海區) have less extreme temperatures(較少極端氣溫), while interior continental(內陸區) temperature cycles are more extreme(較多極端氣溫).
17.Global temperature patterns(全球氣溫圖) for January and July (一月和七月)show the effects of latitude, maritime-continental location, and elevation(緯度、大陸與海洋以及海拔的影響). Equatorial temperatures(赤道溫差) vary little from season to season. Poleward, temperatures decrease with latitud(緯度), and continental surfaces at high latitudes(高緯區的大陸) can become very cold in winter. At higher elevations(高海拔區), temperatures are always colder.
18.Isotherms(等溫線) —lines of equal temperature—over continents(大陸) swing(搖擺) widely north(北) and south(南) with the seasons, while isotherms(等溫線) over oceans(海上) move through a much narrower range of latitude. The annual range in temperature(每年的溫差範圍) expands with latitude(緯度), and is greatest in northern hemisphere continental interiors(北半球的內陸).
19.Within the last few decades(最近幾十年), global temperatures have been increasing. CO~2~ , released by fossil fuel burning, is important in causing warming, but so are the other greenhouse gases(溫室氣體) —CH~4~ , CFC~s~(氟氯烃), O~3~ , and N~2~O.
20.The Earth’ s temperature record is now measured by satellite instruments and thermometers(衛星儀器和溫度計). Temperatures(溫度範圍) before about 1850(19世界) are estimated from proxies(間接觀測) , which include tree rings(年), coral growth rings(珊瑚年輪), and ice cores(冰芯). Volcanic activity can lower temperatures by injecting aerosols(氣懸膠體) into the stratosphere(平流層).
21.The global temperature record(全球溫度紀錄) shows substantial(充實的) increases, especially(特別是) in the last 50 years. Recent climate change is caused largely by human activities(人類活動). The arctic regions(北極區) are warming especially rapidly.
22.Although human activity has both warming and cooling effects on the atmosphere, the result is a net warming(暖化淨效應) equal to(等於) about 1 percent of the solar energy(太陽能) absorbed(吸收) by the Earth and atmosphere.
23.By 2011, 9 of the 10 warmest years had occurred in the twenty-first century.(21世紀) In the last 30 years, the Earth has warmed by 0.6°C (1.1°F). Climate variability(氣候變化) and the amplitude of extreme weather events(極端氣候的幅度) have increased. Climate change is presently changing ecosystems(生態系統) and their boundaries.
24.International efforts to control global climate change(全球氣候變遷) are underway(如火如荼的進行), but no effective consensus(沒有有效的共識) has been reached(達成) among nations on a plan to curb(抑制) greenhouse gas emissions(排放).

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# 大氣濕度與降水
## :rain_cloud: 主要概念
:::info
1.Acid deposition of sulfate and nitrate particles, either dry or as acid raindrops, can acidify soils and lakes, causing fish and plant mortality.
2.Precipitation is the fall of liquid or solid water from the atmosphere to reach the Earth’ s land or ocean surface.
3.Because the water molecule has a weak positive charge on one side and a weak negative charge on the other, liquid water molecules exhibit hydrogen bonding, producing strong surface tension, adherence to solid substances, capillarity , high specific heat , and the ability to dissolve many substances.
4.Water exists in three states: as a solid (ice), as a liquid (water), or as an invisible gas (water vapor). Evaporating, condensing, melting, freezing, sublimation , and deposition describe the changes of the state of water.
5.The hydrosphere is the realm of water in all its forms. Nearly all of the hydrosphere consists of saline ocean water. The remainder is freshwater on the continents and a very small amount of atmospheric water.
6.Water moves freely between ocean, atmosphere, and land in the hydrologic cycle. The global water balance describes these flows.
7.Humidity describes the amount of water vapor present in air. The ability of air to hold water vapor depends on temperature. Warm air can hold much more water vapor than cold air.
8.Specific humidity measures the mass of water vapor in a mass of air in grams of water vapor per kilogram of air. The dew-point temperature of a parcel of moist air is the temperature at which the air becomes saturated. The more water vapor in the air, the higher the dew-point temperature.
9.Relative humidity measures water vapor in the air as the percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor that can be held at the given air temperature.
10.The adiabatic principle states that when a gas is compressed, it warms, and when a gas expands, it cools. When an air parcel moves upward in the atmosphere, it encounters a lower pressure and so expands and cools. The dry adiabatic lapse rate describes the rate of cooling with altitude.
11.If the air is cooled below the dew point, condensation or deposition occurs. The altitude at which condensation starts is the lifting condensation level . Condensation releases latent heat, which reduces the parcel’ s rate of cooling with altitude. When condensation and deposition is occuring, the cooling rate is described as the moist adiabatic lapse rate.
12.Clouds are composed of droplets of water or crystals of ice that form on condensation nuclei . Clouds typically occur in layers, as stratiform clouds, or in globular masses, as cumuliform clouds.
13.Fog is a cloud layer at ground level. Radiation fog occurs on clear nights in valleys and low-lying areas. Advection fog results when a warm, moist air layer moves over a cold surface.
14.Weather forecasters use images from the GOES satellite system—a pair of geostationary satellites with views of North America and the oceans to its east and west—to monitor clouds and precipitation and track storms.
15.Precipitation forms when water droplets in warm clouds condense, collide, and coalesce into droplets that are large enough to fall as rain. In cold clouds, ice crystals grow by deposition, while water droplets shrink by evaporation.
16.There are four types of precipitation processes: orographic, convective, cyclonic, and convergent . In orographic precipitation, air moves up and over a mountain barrier. As it moves up, it is cooled adiabatically, and rain forms. As it descends the far side of the mountain, it is warmed, producing a rain shadow effect.
17.In convective precipitation , unequal heating of the surface causes an air parcel to become warmer and less dense than the surrounding air. Because it is less dense, it rises. As it moves upward, it cools, and condensation with precipitation may occur.
18.In stable air, the heated parcel rapidly reaches the temperature of the surrounding air.
19.In unstable air, the surrounding air is always cooler than the parcel, making it rise to great heights with intense condensation. Warm, humid masses of air, heated by the summer Sun, often become unstable, triggering convective precipitation.
20.Precipitation from clouds occurs as rain, snow, sleet, freezing rain, and hail. When supercooled rain falls on a surface that has a temperature below freezing, it produces an ice storm.
21.Precipitation is measured with a rain gauge. Snow is measured either by its depth or by the amount of water it yields when melted.
22.Thunderstorms produce thunder and lightning. They can also produce high winds, hail, and tornadoes.
23.Air-mass thunderstorms are generated by daytime heating of warm, moist air. In the cumulus stage, cumulus clouds form, rise, and evaporate, causing instability. Later clouds rise higher in the unstable air and form mature stage thunderstorms, often with anvil clouds . Falling precipitation generates downdrafts that eventually lead to the dissipating stage .
24.Lightning occurs in clouds when updrafts and downdrafts cause negative and positive charges to build up in different regions of the cloud. Electric current suddenly passes between the regions, resulting in an arc of lightning. Severe thunderstorms, enhanced by wind shear, last longer and have higher winds than air-mass thunderstorms. Massive supercell thunderstorms can also form under unusual conditions.
25.A microburst is an intense downdraft that precedes some severe thunderstorms.
26.Upper-air wind fl ow patterns sometimes produce large masses of severe thunderstorms called mesoscale convective systems, or squall lines of thunderstorms in different stages of development.
27.In the rotating funnel of a tornado , wind speeds can exceed those of any other type of storm. Tornadoes are formed when wind shear produces a horizontal vortex that is lifted by convection to create a vertical mesocyclone . As the storm develops, rotation of the mesocyclone increases, sometimes generating a tornado.
28.Tornado damage is assessed using the Enhanced Fujita intensity scale , with ratings from 0 to 5.
29.Air pollutants are unwanted gases, aerosols, and particulates injected into the air by human and natural activity. Polluting gases, aerosols , and particulates are generated largely by fuel combustion. Pollutants leave the air by fallout from gravity and washout from precipitation.
30.Smog , a common form of air pollution, contains nitrogen oxides, volatile organic compounds, and ozone. Inversions can trap smog and other pollutant mixtures in a layer close to the ground, producing unhealthy air.

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