---
# System prepended metadata

title: Foundations of Project Management
tags: [Cousera, learn, PM, Google Project Management]

---

# Foundations of Project Management
###### tags: `Cousera` `learn` `PM` `Google Project Management`
## Week 1
### Welcome to the Google Project Management Certificate
專案管理的定義：
應用知識,技巧,工具,科技來達成專案的需求以及達到理想化的成果



什麼是專案

組織
預算
追蹤

What does a project manager do?
專案管理流程

規劃和組織
管理任務
設定預算
控制花費以及其他影響專案因素

專案管理師價值
為公司創造新服務
假設我是一個專案管理師,我要如何為公司增加價值

Transferable project management skills
規劃每個人的工作,讓他們產力最大化
每件該完成的事,都能在應該完成的時候完成
工作符合每個員工的能力



```
Project management job categories and common roles 
Introductory-level project management roles
Entry-level project management positions are a great opportunity to get your foot in the door and learn the ins and outs of how a company operates and manages projects. The lessons you learn from these experiences are extremely valuable to your growth in project management. Some entry-level project management positions include:

Junior Project Manager: Performs all aspects of being a project manager alongside a more experienced professional.

Project Administrator: Assists the rest of the project team with administrative tasks. 

Project/Program Assistant: Supports team members working on a project and offers administrative support. May perform research or create training documents along with other jobs as assigned by program leaders.

Project/Program Coordinator: Participates in hands-on project work and administrative tasks. Works under a project manager to make sure projects are completed on time and within budget.

Project Support Specialist: Works alongside a project manager and team members to oversee assigned projects. May also be responsible for training and developing employees to perform designated tasks.

Traditional project management roles
Once you have gained some experience in introductory-level positions, you can explore traditional project management roles, such as:

Project Manager: Responsible for the initiating, planning, executing, monitoring, and closing of a project. Includes industry-specific titles like IT project manager, construction project manager, or engineering project manager, which utilize skills that are transferable among industries.

Project Analyst: Moves a project along by sharing information, providing support through data analysis, and contributing to strategy and performance. 

Project Leader/Director: Drives core decision-making and sets the direction for the project. Usually knowledgeable about the product or deliverable. 

Project Controller: Primarily responsible for project planning. You are likely to see this job title in industries like engineering and construction.

Technical Project Manager: Conducts project planning and management for identified goals within a company. Ensures that projects are completed to the requirements within a defined time frame and budget.

Project Management Office (PMO) Analyst: Manages the progress of complex projects to ensure timely execution and completion. 

Program and portfolio management roles
As you have learned, project managers are responsible for the day-to-day management of projects. They shepherd projects from start to finish and serve as a guide for their team. Project managers must apply the right tools, techniques, and processes to complete the project successfully, on time, and within budget. 

After you have carried out projects successfully and feel you are ready for a step up in responsibility, a program manager position may be the next step for you. While a project is one single-focused endeavor, a program is a collection of projects. Program managers are responsible for managing many projects. At Google, all project managers are called program managers because they manage multiple projects simultaneously. 

Successfully implementing programs as a program manager can eventually make you a great fit for more senior positions, such as a senior program manager or a portfolio manager. A portfolio is a collection of projects and programs across an entire organization. Portfolio managers are responsible for portfolios of projects or programs for one client. Over the course of your career, you might progress from project manager to program manager to portfolio manager roles.

While project, program, and portfolio managers hold different types and levels of responsibility, they are all project managers. In Course 4 of this certificate program, you will learn more about differentiating projects, programs, and portfolios.

Graphic of project manager > program manager > portfolio manager
Program managers: Manage a group of projects that are related or similar to one another and handle the coordination of these projects. They facilitate effective communication between individual project managers and provide support where necessary. They also help create and manage long-term goals for their organization.

Portfolio managers: Responsible for managing a group of related programs within the same organization. They coordinate various programs in order to ensure they are on track and that the organization is meeting its strategic initiatives. Portfolio managers look at all projects and programs within the organization and prioritize work as necessary. 

Operational management roles 
In operational management roles, you will get the opportunity to experience several different departments and how they interact and operate. Operational management roles allow you to work alongside peers and management from various business segments, giving you an appreciation for what each segment does on a daily basis. Key elements of project management include making sure a project is on budget and on schedule. This course, and your experience as a project manager, will give you the tools to be able to apply those skills to running a business. Some operational management positions include:

Operations Analyst: Manages and coordinates research, investigates workflows, creates business procedures, and recommends changes to improve the project and company. 

Operations Manager: Oversees strategic decision-making and rolls out plans of action based on financial, schedule, and resource reporting. 

Chief Operating Officer: Responsible for overseeing the day-to-day administrative and operational functions of a business.

Agile roles
We will discuss the Agile project management approach in depth later, but here are a couple of the positions you may see that are related to that approach:

Scrum Master: Coordinates and guides the Scrum team. Knowledgeable in Agile framework and Scrum and is able to teach others about the Scrum values and principles.

Product Owner: Drives the direction of product development and progress. 

Industry-specific management roles
As you search for project management roles, you may see positions with titles like “engineering project manager” or “construction project manager.” Keep in mind that the skills you learn in one industry can be applied to another industry. For example, you may have experience as a software engineer but are interested in pursuing a career in project management. You will be able to apply what you’ve learned working in a technical field, as well as with the skills you have picked up in this certification course, to a project manager position in multiple industries. Having experience working on a team to achieve a task and understanding how to execute an effort on schedule and on budget are aspects of your professional experience—combined with your project management knowledge—that make it possible for you to move between industries.
Key takeaway
Project management is a career path with a great deal of potential! 

With each step along your career path, you are building yourself up to be a significant contributor to any company.  We have discussed a number of possible job titles for you to search for when you start exploring project management roles. Regardless of the industry in which you currently work, you have gained transferable skills. Transferable skills are abilities that can be used in many different jobs and career paths. Your transferable skills can likely be utilized in project management roles in many other industries. 
```

![](https://i.imgur.com/DRiDZkG.png)

### week 2
#### The value of a project manager

專案管理師定義：
使用組織領導和人際技巧,領導整個專案,從開始到結束,作為團隊領導者的角色.

專案管理師的角色：
- prioritization
	- 找出專案中影響結果最大的任務,排列優先順序
- delegation
	- 指派適合的工作給對的人
- effective communication
	- 讓人和人之間溝通更清楚,效率

#### How project managers impact organizations

Focusing on the customer
Building a great team
Fostering relationships and communication
Managing the project
Breaking down barriers


Responsibilities that utilize interpersonal skills
![](https://i.imgur.com/RG1E9Vz.png)

Teaching and mentoring
- Teaching and mentoring
- Building relationships 
- Controlling change
- Empowering your team
- Communicating status and concerns

Working with cross-functional teams
![](https://i.imgur.com/F1ESYht.png)
- Clarify goals
- Get team members with the right skills
- Recognize efforts

### The core skills of a project manager

skill for successful Project management
- Enable decision making
- Communicating and escalating
- Flexibility
	- Flexible planning
		- Assess external constraints.
		- Plan for risks and challenges. 
		- Calculate “float” in your schedule
	- Handling ambiguity
		- Keep calm
		- Express empathy
		- Communicate what you know clearly
		- Make decisions and stick to them
		- Trust the expertise of your team

- Strong Orginization skills
	- Planning and scheduling software (templates, workflows, calendars)
	- Collaboration tools (email, collaboration software, dashboards)
	- Documentation (files, plans, spreadsheets)
	- Quality assurance tools (evaluations, productivity trackers, reports)


Key competencies: Flexibility and handling ambiguity

### Common myths about project managers

## Week 3
### Exploring the phases of the project life cycle
Project life cycle
- Initiate the project	
	- Ask question to help the foundation of the project
		- Who are the stakeholders?
		- What are the client’s or customer’s goals?
		- What is the purpose and mission of the project?
		- What are the measurable objectives for the team? 
		- What is the project trying to improve? 
		- When does this project need to be completed? 
		- What skills and resources will the project require? 
		- What will the project cost? What are the benefits?
	- clear project's goal, requirements
	- identifies and documents the value that this project creates for the company
	- presents all of the information to boss and clients
	- make proposal and let both approve
- Make a plan
	- Having a plan in place ensures that all team members and stakeholders are prepared to complete their tasks
	- outlines the important deadlines and tasks
	- creates a schedule to account for all resources, materials, and tasks needed to complete the project
- Excute and Complete the project
	- monitors team
	- help break down any barriers that would slow or stop the team from completing their tasks
	-  keep up to date on the project status and gather feedback from them
	- keeps the project on schedule and within budget
- Close the project
	- team discuss and document the lessons learned from the project
	-  What worked well, and what could work better next time
	
- init
	- define project goals
	- determine resource, people, and other project detail
	- get project approval of proposal
- plan
	- create budget
	- set schedule
	- establish team
	- determine roles and responsibility
	- plan for risk and change
	- establish comunications
	
- excute
	- Manage Progress
	- Communicate
	- make adjustment

- close
	- Ensure all task have been completed
	- Confirm acceptance of the project outcome
	- reflet(retrospective) on lession learned
		- what went well and what didn't
	- Communicate results with stakeholders(who are interested the project's success and completion)
	- celebrate

### Methadology
#### Waterfall and Agile

compare
https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/182PiQ2zOft_xVHfYLNy93Au16dRk8RNbyUJdHTA9XMI/edit?usp=sharing

#### Lean and Six Sigma
DMAIC
- Define
- Measure
- Analyse
- Improve
- Control

##### Lean
Lean methodology is often referred to as Lean Manufacturing because it originated in the manufacturing world. The main principle in Lean methodology is the removal of waste within an operation. By optimizing process steps and eliminating waste, only value is added at each phase of production.  

Today, the Lean Manufacturing methodology recognizes eight types of waste within an operation: defects, excess processing, overproduction, waiting, inventory, transportation, motion, and non-utilized talent. In the manufacturing industry, these types of waste are often attributed to issues such as: 

Lack of proper documentation

Lack of process standards

Not understanding the customers’ needs

Lack of effective communication

Lack of process control

Inefficient process design

Failures of management

Implementing the 5S method means cleaning up and organizing the workplace to achieve the smallest amount of wasted time and material. The 5S method includes these five steps: 

* Sort: Remove all items not needed for current production operations and leave only the bare essentials. 
* Set in order: Arrange needed items so that they are easy to use. Label items so that anyone can find them or put them away. 
* Shine: Keep everything in the correct place. Clean your workspace every day.
* Standardize: Perform the process in the same way every time. 
* Sustain: Make a habit of maintaining correct procedures and instill this discipline in your team.
Lean uses a Kanban scheduling system to manage production. The Kanban scheduling system, or Kanban board, is a visualization tool that enables you to optimize the flow of your team’s work. It gives the team a visual display to identify what needs to be done and when. The Kanban board uses cards that are moved from left to right to show progress and help your team coordinate the work. 
![](https://i.imgur.com/OC5hAxh.png)
##### Six Sigma
Six Sigma is a methodology used to reduce variations by ensuring that quality processes are followed every time. The term “Six Sigma” originates from statistics and generally means that items or processes should have 99.9996% quality.
The seven key principles of Six Sigma are:

- Always focus on the customer.
- Identify and understand how the work gets done. Understand how work really happens.
- Make your processes flow smoothly.
- Reduce waste and concentrate on value.
- Stop defects by removing variation.
- Involve and collaborate with your team.
- Approach improvement activity in a systematic way.

The largest difference between these methodologies is that Lean streamlines processes while Six Sigma reduces variation in products by building in quality from the beginning and inspecting products to ensure quality standards are met. You may find that one of these two methods—or using them both together—can improve the efficiency of your projects. 

Popular project management approaches
Below is a brief recap of some of the project management approaches you’ve been introduced to so far:

Waterfall is a traditional methodology in which tasks and phases are completed in a linear, sequential manner, and each stage of the project must be completed before the next begins. The project manager is responsible for prioritizing and assigning tasks to team members. In Waterfall, the criteria used to measure quality is clearly defined at the beginning of the project.

Agile involves short phases of collaborative, iterative work with frequent testing and regularly-implemented improvements. Some phases and tasks happen at the same time as others. In Agile projects, teams share responsibility for managing their own work. Scrum and Kanban are examples of Agile frameworks, which are specific development approaches based on the Agile philosophy.

Scrum is an Agile framework that focuses on developing, delivering, and sustaining complex projects and products through collaboration, accountability, and an iterative process. Work is completed by small, cross-functional teams led by a Scrum Master and is divided into short Sprints with a set list of deliverables.

Kanban is both an Agile approach and a tool that provides visual feedback about the status of the work in progress through the use of Kanban boards or charts. With Kanban, project managers use sticky notes or note cards on a physical or digital Kanban board to represent the team’s tasks with categories like “To do,” “In progress,” and “Done.”

Lean uses the 5S quality tool to eliminate eight areas of waste, save money, improve quality, and streamline processes. Lean’s principles state that you can do more with less by addressing dysfunctions that create waste. Lean implements a Kanban scheduling system to manage production.

Six Sigma involves reducing variations by ensuring that quality processes are followed every time. The Six Sigma method follows a process-improvement approach called DMAIC, which stands for define, measure, analyze, improve, and control.

Lean Six Sigma is a combination of Lean and Six Sigma approaches. It is often used in projects that aim to save money, improve quality, and move through processes quickly. Lean Six Sigma is also ideal for solving complex or high-risk problems. The 5S quality tool, the DMAIC process, and the use of Kanban boards are all components of this approach. 

#### Classic and Matrix structures
manager's role within different organizational structures

Classic and Matrix
##### Classic organizational structures
The Classic organizational structure is a top-down hierarchy system, where a Chief Executive Officer (CEO) has direct authority over several department managers. The department manager has direct authority over several other sections of employees. This system requires communication both up and down the ladder. In a Classic structure, authority comes from the top and filters to the bottom. Frequent reporting of project status updates may be required to pass up through management levels to keep higher leaders informed. 

Classic organizations are also referred to as functional organizations because the organization is divided into departments based on function. Each department is led by a functional manager, and employees are grouped according to the functions of their role. For example, the main function of Friendly Skies Airlines, an airline company, is to fly airplanes. There are typically departments logically arranged to fulfill other important company functions, such as Marketing, Human Resources, and Strategy. Employees usually have a specialty within the organization and may not work within other areas during normal everyday operations. 

Managing a project in a Classic organization
Friendly Skies Airlines has a Classic organizational structure, as indicated by its reporting or “org” chart.
![](https://i.imgur.com/cqBKdmf.png)
Imagine that the Friendly Skies Airlines Board of Directors approves an initiative to retrofit existing airplanes to carry more passengers. The CEO sponsors a project team to redesign the airplanes. The project will be led by a project manager from the Engineering and Innovation department and will require representatives from Finance, Marketing, Strategy, and Operations, along with several other team members from the Design department, to successfully complete the project. 

The project team will typically remain in their reporting lines but act as their own assembled team. They do not fall under any of the existing functional departments. In the Classic organizational structure, the project builds from already existing departments to form teams. 

If you are a project manager in this type of structure, you may need to consult with functional managers to understand your resources and the capacity of each teammate, as well as to familiarize yourself with each function’s internal processes and approval structure. Your authority may be slightly limited due to competing priorities, approval chains, and other complexities, but setting expectations up front will enable you to navigate the organization and execute your project successfully.

#### Matrix organizational structures
The Matrix structure differs from the Classic structure in that the employees have two or more managers. In Matrix structures, you still have people above you, but you also have people in adjacent departments with whom you will need to communicate on your work progress. Functional areas tend to cross paths more frequently, and depending on the nature of the work, the responsible manager for each area has the most authority. 

As a project manager in a Matrix organization, your team will essentially have at least two chains of command, or managers. You can think of the project manager as being a temporary manager while the employee is assigned to the team, whereas the functional manager is consistent regardless of which project the employee is supporting. The visual below illustrates what the Friendly Skies Airlines would look like if it had a Matrix organizational structure.

![](https://i.imgur.com/5MLQhYM.png)
Managing a project in a Matrix organization
Imagine that Friendly Skies Airlines is organized in a Matrix structure. Their Product Excellence team develops a new amenity kit for long-haul flights. They ask the Project Manager to help gather marketing materials that present research data about how this product fulfills passenger desires. The Project Manager is working on behalf of the Product Excellence team, but they are able to work in partnership with the Marketing team to create these materials.  

Matrix: 延伸閱讀

#### The role of a Project Management Office

##### What is a PMO?
A Project Management Office, or PMO, is a group within an organization that defines, sets, and helps maintain project management standards and processes throughout that organization. It often acts as a coordinated center for all of the organization’s projects, helping them run more smoothly and efficiently.

##### What are the functions of a PMO?
PMOs offer guidance and support to their organization’s project managers. They share best practices, project statuses, and direction for all of the organization’s projects while often taking on strategic projects themselves. The main functions of a PMO include:

##### Strategic planning and governance
This is the most important function of a PMO. This involves defining project criteria, selecting projects according to the organization’s business goals, and then providing a business case for those projects to management.

Best practices
PMOs help implement best practices and processes within their organization. They also share lessons learned from previous successful projects. They help ensure consistency among their organization’s projects by providing guidance about processes, tools, and metrics.

Common project culture 
PMOs help set common project culture practices by training employees about optimal approaches and best practices. This helps keep project management practices consistent and efficient across the entire organization. 

Resource management
PMOs are often responsible for managing and allocating resources—such as people and equipment—across projects throughout the organization based on budget, priorities, schedules, and more. They also help define the roles and responsibilities needed on any given project. PMOs provide training, mentoring, and coaching to all employees, but project managers in particular. 

Creation of project documentation, archives, and tools
PMOs invest in and provide templates, tools, and software to help manage projects. They also play an important role in maintaining their organization’s project history. Once a project closes, they archive all of the documents created during the project for future reference and to capture lessons learned.


### organization’s culture
It is important to learn about the culture of the organization where you work or want to work. Understanding the company’s culture can help you navigate your team through a project. Consider this quote from Peter Drucker, an expert on management: ”Culture eats strategy for breakfast.” Drucker is implying that the culture of a company always influences its success, regardless of how effective the company’s business model may be. Organizational culture is critical to the health of a company, the people who work there, and the customers it serves.


#### The importance of organizational culture 
Identity: An organization’s culture defines its identity. Its identity essentially describes the way the company conducts  business, both internally and externally. A company’s values and organizational culture go hand-in-hand; its values are part of its identity. You can almost think of an organization’s culture as its personality. That is why it is important to learn your company’s (or target company’s) mission and value statements. The mission and value statements will help you understand why the company exists and will give you insight into what the company believes in and how it will behave. 

People: Strong, positive organizational culture helps retain a company’s best employees. People who feel valued, engaged, and challenged are more likely to give their best and want to drive for success. An organization’s culture can help keep talented employees at a company, and it can attract great people too! On the other hand, a toxic culture can have the opposite effect. It is important to find an organization with a culture that fits your personality. One way to find out more about an organization's culture is to talk to the people who work there. You can also take note of the current employees’ attire, expressions, and overall behavior.

Processes: Organizational culture can have direct impacts on a company's processes, and ultimately, its productivity. The organization’s culture is instilled throughout the company—from its employees to how its employees do their job. For example, a company that values feedback and employee involvement might have that reflected in their processes by including many opportunities for employees to comment. By allowing employees to feel their voices are heard, this company is adhering to its culture. 

#### Understanding an organization’s culture
As a project manager, it is important to understand your company’s culture, especially because it could affect the projects you work on. Some aspects of an organization’s culture that are directly related to how you will manage projects are communication, decision-making, rituals, previous management styles, and values. To learn more about a company’s culture and how it applies to you as a project manager, you can: 

Ask questions
You can learn about an organization's culture by asking questions of management and peers. It can be helpful to ask these questions in the interview phase to better understand the company’s culture before accepting a position. You might want to ask questions about:

Atmosphere
What is the company’s dress code? 

How do people typically share credit at this company? 

Is risk-taking encouraged, and what happens when people fail?

How do managers support and motivate their team?

How do people in this role interact with customers and users?

When and how do team members give feedback to one another?

What are some workplace traditions?

What are some of the ways the company celebrates success?

Policies
What are the policies around sick days and vacation?

Does the company allow for employee flexibility (e.g., working from home, flexible working hours)?

What policies are in place that support employees sharing their identity in the workplace?

Processes
What is the company’s onboarding process?

How do employees measure the impact of their work?

Values
What are the company’s mission and value statements?

How might the person in this role contribute to the organization’s mission?

How does the organization support professional development and career growth?

Listen to people’s stories
Listening to what current employees have to say and how they portray the company will give you great insight.

What were employees' experiences with similar projects in the past? 

What can they tell you about key stakeholders and customers? 

Take note of company rituals
Rituals can be powerful drivers of culture. They engage people and help instill a sense of shared purpose and experience. 

How are birthdays and holidays celebrated? 

Do employees generally eat lunch at the same time and in the same place? 

Watch employee interactions: Observing how employees interact can help you tailor your interaction style to the company norm. 

Are employee interactions more formal or informal in nature? 

Are ideas solicited from employees in different roles? 

Understand your impact
As a project manager, you become a change agent. Remember: a change agent is a person from inside an organization who helps the organization transform by focusing on improving organizational effectiveness and development. When you begin a new role, sit down with management to better understand what is expected of you and how you can make the most of the opportunity.

Sharpen your communication skills
Interpersonal communication skills are a major part of project management. How a company communicates is directly tied to its organizational culture. You will most likely have interactions with various departments and management levels while executing projects. To communicate effectively, you will need to understand how to navigate the different channels in your company. Ask questions about communication practices when you start a new role such as: Is it customary to sign emails from the team rather than from you individually? Should presentations include team members or be solely presented by the project manager? This can help you make sure you are adhering to expectations.

Approaching projects differently from how similar projects were managed in the past may be met with some resistance. Although some projects may call for you to break the status quo, when you show an appreciation of your organization’s culture, you may help your team members accept any improvements you are implementing.

###  Case study:Balancing company culture and strategic goals



### Introduction to change management

### Integrating project management and change management
Be proactive. Proactive and inclusive change management planning can help keep any potentially impacted stakeholders aware of the upcoming changes.

Incorporate change management into your project management steps. For example, you can schedule time during team meetings or create a feedback document to ensure that your team members know there is a place to voice their suggestions and concerns. 

You can also plan steps towards the end of your project to introduce the deliverable to stakeholders in the form of demonstrations, question and answer forums, or marketing videos. You can factor all of these decisions into your plan so that any potential changes are less likely to impact your timeline. If these steps have not been built into your plan, you can escalate and stress the importance of a change management plan to your stakeholders. 

Communicate about upcoming changes. Communication should occur regularly among impacted stakeholders, the change management team, and the project team. Check in and communicate throughout the project about how the changes will provide a better experience for end users of the project deliverables. In this way, you support the process by providing everyone with the information they need to feel prepared to adjust to changes once the project is ready to launch. 

Follow a consistent process. Following a clear change management process helps maintain consistency each time there is a change. The change management process should be established and documented early on in your project to guide how the project will handle change. Your organization may also have an overarching change management plan that can be adopted for your project. This may include when the promotion of the change should happen, when training should occur, when the launch or release will occur, and corresponding steps for each phase of the process. 

Practice empathy. Changes are inevitable, but we are often resistant to them. By being empathetic to the challenges and anxiety change can bring, you can support the process in subtle ways. 

Use tools. Incorporating tools to assist in the adoption of a change can be very helpful. Here are a few examples you can use on your next project:

Feedback mechanisms, such as surveys, can capture input from stakeholders.

Flowcharts can visualize the project's development process.

Culture mapping can illustrate the company's culture and how the company's values, norms, and employees behavior may be affected by the change.

As the project manager, you are responsible for successfully delivering projects. As you hone the skill set you acquire throughout this program, you will find that change management is essential to your projects’ success.

延伸閱讀
https://www.prosci.com/resources/articles/change-management-at-the-project-level
https://www.citrix.com/content/dam/citrix/en_us/documents/reference-material/5-steps-to-successful-end-user-adoption.pdf
https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1YMVERX1vBsknCjbCtsKFmHgWWZxFcO5A3urvWbWXKbs/template/preview?resourcekey=0-_V7hj-KwQu75EI2Y9qpsTw

### Corporate and project governance
Governance in business is the management framework within which decisions are made and accountability and responsibility are determined. In simple terms, governance is understanding who is in charge. In this reading, we will discuss corporate governance and project governance. It is important to learn how corporate and project governance are related since you may have to speak about governance in an interview. Additionally, you will need to understand how your project relates to the governance structure of the organization.

Corporate governance
Each organization is governed by its own set of standards and practices that direct and control its actions. Those standards and practices are called corporate governance, and they will influence your projects. Corporate governance is the framework by which an organization achieves its goals and objectives. Corporate governance is also a way to balance the requirements of the various corporate entities, such as stakeholders, management, and customers. Corporate governance affects every part of an organization, including action plans, internal and external controls, and performance measurements.

Governance and change management go hand-in-hand. Think back to the previous videos on change management. To successfully implement change management, it is essential that you understand the structure and culture of the organization. Effective governance in change management provides clearly defined roles and responsibilities during change. This enables the people within the organization to have a precise understanding of who makes decisions and of the relationship between those managing and participating in the change management process. 

Another example of governance within an organization is the creation and use of steering committees. Steering committees decide on the priorities of an organization and manage the general course of its operations. The steering committee essentially acts as an advisory board or council to help the project manager and the company make and approve strategic decisions that affect both the company and the project. 

Project governance
As a project manager, you will be responsible for project governance. Project governance is the framework for how project decisions are made. Project governance helps keep projects running smoothly, on time, and within budget. Project governance involves all the key elements that make a project successful. It tells you what activities an organization does and who is responsible for those activities. Project governance covers policies, regulations, functions, processes, procedures, and responsibilities. 

How project and corporate governance intersect
Project governance needs to be tailored to your organization's specific needs. These needs will influence how you implement and monitor the governance framework on your project. Project governance concerns those areas of corporate governance that are specifically related to project activities. Effective project governance ensures that an organization’s projects are aligned to the organization’s larger objectives, are delivered efficiently, and are sustainable. This includes:

Considering the long- and short-term interests of your organization

Making thoughtful decisions about which projects to take on and avoiding projects if you do not have sufficient resources

Providing timely, relevant, and reliable information to the board of directors and other major stakeholders 

Eliciting the input and buy-in of senior managers since they are the decision-makers 

During the initiation phase, prioritizing clear, reachable, and sustainable goals in order to reduce confusion and conflict

During the planning phase, assigning ownership and accountability to an experienced team to deliver, monitor, and control the process 

During the execution phase, learning from mistakes and adapting to new or improved knowledge

Corporate governance can involve clearing many hurdles before making decisions. These decisions can influence not only a single project, but the entire corporation. 

At the same time, corporate governance can help support project governance, as it provides oversight on compliance and mitigating risk and offers guidance and direction for project managers. Good corporate governance can also help project managers secure resources, get issues addressed, avoid delays in decision-making, get buy-in from stakeholders, and achieve visibility for projects on the executive level.

### How to uncover job opportunities
Understand your target role
One of the primary challenges for anyone looking to launch a new career is how to stand out against candidates who already have experience in the field. Overcoming this challenge begins with developing a comprehensive understanding of the role you’re targeting. You'll need to understand the role in the context of any company you’re applying to, and more broadly as well. Having a holistic understanding of what it takes to succeed in your target role will help you determine your suitability for the role, and identify any steps you can take to improve your chances of getting hired.

To understand everything from minimum must-have requirements to skills that might help you stand out from the crowd, you can begin by researching and analyzing job descriptions across different organizations. 

Below you’ll find our recommended strategy for how to approach this process effectively.

Analyze job listings
The first part of the process is to gather information from multiple job listings:

Pull up ten job descriptions for your target role. To do this, you can use job boards like Indeed, Glassdoor, and LinkedIn. Make sure the roles you select come from different companies, share similar titles, and are roles you would actually apply for. In each job description, you should be able to identify a section listing requirements for the role. 

Combine all the job requirements. To do this, create a new Google document and copy over all the required responsibilities from all ten job descriptions. 

Order requirements based on appearance frequency. Certain requirements will likely appear in multiple descriptions. The more commonly they appear, the more likely it is that they’re essential for the role. Put the most frequently appearing requirements at the top of your list. For example, a requirement that appears in all ten descriptions would go at the very top.

After completing these steps, you should have a clearer picture of which requirements are most common and important for the role. You may also have questions:

Why do requirements differ across job descriptions? 
One of the most common reasons for this has to do with overly general job titles, or job titles that don’t necessarily communicate the specific scope of a given role at a particular company. For example, a program manager at one company might be focused on customer management, while at another company, the emphasis might be on project management. A Data Analyst might primarily use SQL at one company and Python at another. Because of these differences, it’s important to look beyond job titles. This is why we recommend the process outlined above—to help ensure you’re targeting the exact roles that are right for you—and that you understand the requirements for those exact roles.

Why are some requirements higher on my list than I thought they would be, while others I expected to see barely show up at all? 
If you’re surprised by your results, you may need to spend more time learning what the role really entails, as you may have some preconceptions about the role that require adjusting. You might also need to do additional research to ensure you’re targeting the right roles in your job search. 

How do I know if I’m really right for my target role?
It’s perfectly normal to experience self-doubt at this stage of the process. Remember, this is a new career for you. You’re not expected to know everything about the role, and it’s likely that your existing skills and experience won’t line up perfectly. The more you learn about the role, the better you’ll understand what’s required for success, and the more you’ll know about how to prepare yourself for that success.

Create your professional inventory
For this next step, you can temporarily set aside the master list of role requirements you previously created. The focus here will be on your existing professional qualifications, and any other skills or experience you possess that might be relevant to your target role and of value to a potential employer. 

To begin, assemble a comprehensive list of the following:

Technical (hard) skills. These are skills relating to a specific task or situation such as programming, technical writing, project management, and more.

Non-technical (interpersonal) skills. These are the skills that enable people to navigate their environment, work well with others, perform well, and achieve their goals. They include skills like communication, leadership, team management, and more.

Personal qualities. These are positive attributes and personality traits such as being honest, having a good sense of humor, and being dependable. You can also include your professional interests on this list.

Education. This includes any post-secondary education, certifications, or independent classes completed online or offline.

Tip: You do not need to limit your professional inventory to skills and qualities developed through professional experience. Consider any volunteer, extracurricular, or personal experiences that might help a hiring manager understand your capabilities. 

Once you’ve created your inventory of skills and experience, you’re ready to line these up against your requirements list.

Match your profile to the job requirements
The concluding step in this process is to match your profile to the job requirements. The goal here is to make it easy for any hiring manager to see why you’re a great fit for their role. You’ll accomplish this by learning what to emphasize and focus on in your search, on your resume, and during interviews.

To begin, go through your professional inventory of skills and experience, highlighting each item in green, orange, or red, depending on its relevance to your target role. Relevance is determined by whether a given skill appears on your role requirements list, how high it appears on your list, and how directly it aligns with your list. 

For example, let’s say you’re interested in a program manager role. If you’re skilled at using project management software, and project management software skills are high on your job requirements list, then highlight that item in green. If you have some experience with tools that do not consistently show up on job descriptions but could still be relevant, highlight these skills in orange. 

Green should be used for skills that are directly relevant to your target role. You should look for roles that emphasize these skills. You should also highlight these skills on your resume, and be prepared to discuss them in an interview.

Orange should be used to identify those skills and experiences that are relevant for the role but not necessarily in a direct way. These are generally your transferable skills—skills that you bring with you from past experiences that can help you succeed in your new role. Plan to have to explain these to recruiters and hiring managers, as their relevance may not be immediately evident.

Red should be used for items that are not relevant for your job search. De-prioritize these skills, and steer clear of highlighting them on your resume and focusing on them during interviews.

Of these three categories, the orange items are where you’ll need to focus extra attention. When it comes to transferable skills, you have to do the convincing, as you can’t count on a recruiter or hiring manager making the connection. For example, no job description for a project manager role calls for waitstaff experience. However, that project manager job description will likely mention excellent communication skills—which you would have developed during your hospitality career. When applying for the project manager role, make sure your resume specifically mentions excellent communication in addition to listing “waiter” or “waitress” as your previous occupation. Once you’ve categorized your skills and experience based on how well they align with the requirements for your target role, you’re ready to move your job search forward.

## Essential project roles
In this lesson, you are learning to define project roles and responsibilities. Let’s now build on what you have learned about building your project team and focus on how to further identify the core roles and responsibilities that are critical to any project.   

### The project manager
Although all team members are responsible for their individual parts of the project, the project manager is responsible for the overall success of the team, and ultimately, the project as a whole. A project manager understands that paying close attention to team dynamics is essential to successfully completing a project, and they use team-building techniques, motivation, influencing, decision-making, and coaching skills, to keep their teams strong. 

Project managers integrate all project work by developing the project management plan, directing the work, documenting reports, controlling change, and monitoring quality. 

In addition, project managers are responsible for balancing the scope, schedule, and cost of a project by managing engagement with stakeholders. When managing engagement with stakeholders, project managers rely on strong communication skills, political and cultural awareness, negotiation, trust-building, and conflict management skills.

### Stakeholders
Have you ever heard the phrase “the stakes are high"? When we talk about “stakes,” we are referring to the important parts of a business, situation, or project that might be at risk if something goes wrong. To hold stake in a business, situation, or project means you are invested in its success. There will often be several parties that will hold stake in the outcome of a project. Each group’s level of investment will differ based on how the outcome of the project may impact them. Stakeholders are often divided into two groups: primary stakeholders, also known as key stakeholders, and secondary stakeholders. A primary stakeholder is directly affected by the outcome of the project, while a secondary stakeholder is indirectly affected by the outcome of the project. 

Primary stakeholders usually include team members, senior leaders, and customers. For example, imagine that you are a project manager for a construction company that is commissioned to build out a new event space for a local catering company. On this project, the owners of the catering company would be primary stakeholders since they are paying for the project.

Another primary stakeholder could be the CEO of your construction company. If the CEO likes to be directly involved with projects for local businesses like the catering company, that would make them a primary stakeholder. 

An example of a secondary stakeholder might be the project’s point of contact in legal. While the project outcome might not affect them directly, the project itself would impact their work when they process the contract. Each project will have a different set of stakeholders, which is why it’s important for the project manager to know who they are, what they need, and how to communicate with them.



### Project team members 
Every successful team needs strong leadership and membership, and project management is no exception! Project team members are also considered primary stakeholders, since they play a crucial role in getting the job done. Your team members will vary depending on the type, complexity, and size of the project. It’s important to consider these variables as you select your project team and begin to work with them. Remember that choosing teammates with the right technical skills and interpersonal skills will be valuable as you work to meet your project goals. If you are not able to select your project team, be sure to champion diversity and build trust to create harmony within the team. 

### Sponsor
The project sponsor is another primary stakeholder. A sponsor initiates the project and is responsible for presenting a business case for its existence, signing the project charter, and releasing resources to the project manager. The sponsor is very important to the project, so it’s critical to communicate with them frequently throughout all project phases. In our construction company example, the CEO could also be the project sponsor.


## Prioritizing stakeholders and generating their buy-in

### Conducting a stakeholder analysis 
Stakeholders are an essential part of any project. A project manager’s ability to balance stakeholder requirements, get their buy-in, and understand when and how to involve them is key to successfully fulfilling a project.  

It is key to keep stakeholders organized in order to understand when and how to involve them at the right time. In an earlier video, we introduced the stakeholder analysis, a useful tool that project managers use to understand stakeholders’ needs and help minimize hiccups during your project life cycle. 

Let’s review the key steps in the stakeholder analysis:

Make a list of all the stakeholders the project impacts. When generating this list, ask yourself: Who is invested in the project? Who is impacted by this project? Who contributes to this project? 
Determine the level of interest and influence for each stakeholder—this step helps you determine who your key stakeholders are. The higher the level of interest and influence, the more important it will be to prioritize their needs throughout the project. 
Assess stakeholders’ ability to participate and then find ways to involve them. Various types of projects will yield various types of stakeholders—some will be active stakeholders with more opinions and touchpoints and others will be passive stakeholders, preferring only high-level updates and not involved in the day-to-day. That said, just because a stakeholder does not participate as often as others does not mean they are not important. There are lots of factors that will play a role in determining a stakeholder’s ability to participate in a project, like physical distance from the project and their existing workload. 

Pro tip: You might want to form a steering committee during some projects. A steering committee is a collection of key stakeholders who have a high level of power and interest in a project. A steering committee can influence multiple departments within the organization, which means that they have the potential to release a greater number of resources to the project manager.  

### Visualizing your analysis
A power grid shows stakeholder interest in the project versus their influence over the project. This four-quadrant tool helps project managers evaluate how to manage their stakeholders. It is used to determine the appropriate level of engagement required by the project team needed to gain the stakeholders’ trust and buy-in.

![](https://i.imgur.com/wf7YdLw.png)

Take the time at the start of the project to establish your stakeholder approach. List the stakeholders and then place them into the appropriate places on the grid. Being able to visualize their placement will help you manage communications and expectations. Having a quick reference tool to drive your communication actions will also allow you to have the ability to spend more time doing other tasks on your project. 

Pro tip: While these tools help organize information, they do not necessarily make the difference between successful and unsuccessful stakeholder engagement. What will make for successful stakeholder engagement is the project manager’s ability to know their stakeholders’ motivations and inspirations. This takes time, interpersonal skills, and insight into the organization’s internal political workings. Remember, each project is different, and your project may need tweaks along the way as you grow as a project manager. Making necessary changes means you are doing something right. Just make sure to check in and ensure that you are well on track, engaging your stakeholders successfully, and delivering on your project!

### Generating stakeholder buy-in 
Once you organize and assess your stakeholders, it is time to start making some decisions on whose buy-in is absolutely necessary for success, whose requirements deserve the most attention, and what level of communication each stakeholder will require.

Gaining key stakeholder buy-in is essential to ensuring that your project is not deprioritized or deprived of resources. 

Tips for gaining key stakeholder buy-in include: 

Clearly mapping the work of the project to the goals of the stakeholder.
Describing how the project aligns with the goals of the stakeholder's department or team.
Listening to feedback from the stakeholder and finding ways to incorporate their feedback into the project's charter where appropriate.


Optional reading:
https://www.pmi.org/learning/library/identify-prioritize-stakeholders-11408

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### Building out a RACI chart

A RACI chart can be an extremely effective way to define project roles, give direction to each team member and stakeholder, and ensure work gets done efficiently. Having a RACI chart available throughout the duration of your project as a quick visual can be invaluable. In this reading, we will cover the function of a RACI chart and its components and explore how project managers use RACI charts to define and document project roles and responsibilities. 

### Elements of a RACI chart

A RACI chart creates clear roles and gives direction to each team member and stakeholder. Over your career, you may hear a RACI chart referred to as a Responsibility Assignment Matrix (RAM), RACI diagram, or RACI matrix. The ultimate goal of this chart is to clarify each person’s role on your project. 

First, let’s break down each of the roles people can be assigned:

R: Responsible: who gets the work done

A: Accountable: who makes sure the work is done

C: Consulted: who gives input or feedback on work

I: Informed: who needs to know the outcome

Note that RACI charts can be organized in different ways,  depending on personal preference, number of tasks being assigned, and number of people involved. In the previous video, we showed you one RACI chart format. The template below shows another way a typical RACI chart might be organized.

![](https://i.imgur.com/6CT5XVw.png)

### Responsible 
Individuals who are assigned the “responsible” role for a task are the ones who are actually doing the work to complete the task. Every task needs at least one responsible party. It’s a best practice to try to limit the number of team members assigned to a task’s  responsible role, but in some cases, you may have more than one. 

A couple of questions to ask yourself when determining which person or people should be placed in the responsible role for a given task are:

What department does the work fall under?

Who will perform the work?

It is helpful to evaluate the people on your team to determine the role that suits them. Remember that you may need to list roles rather than names, if some people take on more than one role. 

### Accountable
The “accountable” person is responsible for making sure the task gets done. It is important to have only one individual accountable for each task. This helps clarify ownership of the task. The accountable person ultimately has the authority to approve the deliverable of the responsible party. 

In order to determine who should be tagged as the accountable team member, consider:

Who will delegate the task to be completed?

Who will review the work to determine if the task is complete?

You may encounter a situation where the responsible party is also accountable, but where possible, it is helpful to separate these roles. Ensuring that accountability is not shared ensures that there is no confusion on who the ownership belongs to.

### Consulted
Team members or stakeholders who are placed in the “consulted” role have useful information to help complete the task. There is no maximum or minimum number of people who can be assigned a “consulted” role, but it’s important that each person has a reason for being there.

Here are a few ways you can help identify who is appropriate for the role:

Who will the task impact?

Who will have input or feedback for the responsible person to help the work be completed?

Who are the subject matter experts (SMEs) for the task?

The consulted people will be in frequent, two-way communication with the responsible party, so it is key to make sure that the right people are in this role to help accomplish the task efficiently and correctly.

### Informed
Individuals who are identified as needing to be “informed” need to know the final decisions that were made and when a task is completed. It is common to have many people assigned to this category and for some team members to be informed on most tasks. Team members or stakeholders here will not be asked for feedback, so it is key to make sure people who are in this group only require status updates and do not need to provide any direct feedback for the completion of the effort. 

Key questions to ask yourself in order to ensure that you have appropriately captured individuals in the “informed” role are:

Who cares about this task’s completion?

Who will be affected by the outcome?