# Common TL Phonetic notation system

A Commonized Initial–Final–Tone Phonetic notation system for some Chinese languages, using TL as design base.\
一個通用化的適用於部份漢語語言的 聲–韻–調 音標系統，以 臺羅 為設計原型。

Abbreviated as CTL.\
簡稱 CTL。

Currently applicable for Táiwānese Hokkièn, Mandarin, and Táiwānese Hakka.\
目前適用於臺灣閩南語、標準漢語、以及臺灣客家語。

CTL has two transcription variants, named "CTL Southern" and "CTL Northern", respectively.\
CTL 有兩種標音變體，分別稱為「CTL 南版」與「CTL 北版」。\
The difference between these two variants is the handling of vowels ⟨o⟩/⟨or⟩/⟨oo⟩.\
這兩者的差別是對元音 ⟨o⟩/⟨or⟩/⟨oo⟩ 的處理。

## Conventions of this article 本文慣例

### Conventions of IPA 國際音標的使用慣例

For the meanings of the letter, symbols, and diacritics in IPA, see:\
國際音標的字母、符號、與附加符號的意義，可見：\
<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet_chart>

The phonetic [grapheme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grapheme)s enclosed in `[]` are IPA.\
被 `[]` 括起的音標[字素](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/字位)為國際音標。

The phonetic graphemes enclosed in `//` are IPA in (abstract) phoneme notation.\
被 `//` 括起的音標字素為以（抽象的）音位標音的國際音標。

The phonetic grapheme in the `<phoneme>/<prefix>__<suffix>` context notation are either IPA or placeholder in phoneme notation.\
在 `<音位>/<前綴>__<後綴>` 上下文標記法中的音標字素為以音位標音的國際音標或佔位符。

- The prefix `^` denotes the beginning of the syllable.\
前綴 `^` 表示音節起始。
- The suffix `$` denotes the end of the syllable.\
後綴 `$` 表示音節結尾。
- `◌` is a general placeholder which denotes any phones.\
`◌` 是通用佔位符，表示任意數量的語音單元。
- `Ⓥ` denotes any vowels or semivowels.\
`Ⓥ` 表示任意數量的元音或半元音。

/∅/ represents the null phoneme (not affecting the semantic of the word whenever it is pronounced or not ).\
/∅/ 表示零音位（發音與否不影響詞義）。

In IPA, tones are transcribed with [Chào 5-level tone letters](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_letter).\
在國際音標中，聲調以[趙氏五度標調法符號](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/五度标记法)表示。

- The tone contour of the citation form of the underlying tone is represented with right-stem letters (Chào tone letters):\
本調的聲調輪廓以豎線在右的符號（趙式標調符號）表示：
- /˥/, /˦/, /˧/, /˨/, & /˩/
- If different underlying tones have the same tone contour in their citation form, their are differentiated by using a subscript number in this article.\
若不同調的本調聲調輪廓雷同，本文暫以下標數字區分。
- The contour of the pronounced tone is represented with left-stem letters (reversed Chào tone letters):
實際發音聲調輪廓以豎線在左的符號（反轉趙式標調符號）表示：
- [꜒], [꜓], [꜔], [꜕], & [꜖]

### Conventions of CTL CTL 的慣例

The phonetic graphemes enclosed in `⟨⟩` are CTL.\
被 `⟨⟩` 括起的音標字素為 CTL 音標。

CTL phonetic graphemes separated by `/` mean `⟨CTL Southern/CTL Nouthern⟩` transcription variant.\
被 `/` 分開的 CTL 音標字素表示 `⟨CTL 南版/CTL 北版⟩` 的不同標音法。

### Convention of terminologies in this article 本文用語慣例

<dl>
<dt>Chinese (languages) 漢語</dt>
<dd>The Sinitic languages and dialects 漢語族各語言與各方言</dd>

- _E.g._ 例如, Mandarin 官話, Mǐnnán 閩南語, and Hakka 客家語.
- Including 包含: Written Chinese 中文 & sign languages for Chinese 漢語手語.

<dt>Written Chinese 中文（= 漢語書面語、漢文）</dt>
<dd>The Sinitic languages and dialects in time-invariant expressive forms 漢語族諸語言與諸方言的各種非時變表達形式</dd>

- _E.g._ 例如, Chinese characters 漢字, Latin script 拉丁字母文字, and Braille 點字.

<dt>Mandarin 官話</dt>
<dd>The Mandarin Chinese dialects 漢語官話諸方言</dd>

Including… 包含……

<dt>Standard Mandarin 標準漢語</dt>
<dd>Modern Standard Mandarin Chinese 現代標準漢語</dd>

- Including 包含: Mainland Standard Mandarin 大陸標準漢語, Táiwānese Mandarin 臺灣標準漢語, *etc.* 等等。

<dt>Mainland Standard Mandarin 大陸標準漢語</dt>
<dd>Mainland China's standard of Standard Mandarin, including colloquial forms of Běijīng accent 標準漢語的中國大陸標準，含北京腔的口語形式</dd>

（= ***Pǔtōnghuà*** ***普通話***）

<dt>Táiwānese Mandarin 臺灣標準漢語</dt>
<dd>Táiwān's standard of Standard Mandarin, including colloquial forms 標準漢語的臺灣標準，含口語形式</dd>

（= ***Guóyǔ*** in the strict sence 狹義的***國語***）

<dt>Southern Mǐn (= Mǐnnán) 閩南語</dt>
<dd>The Southern Mǐn languages/dialects 閩南語各語言/方言</dd>

_E.g._ 例如, Hokkièn (= Choân-chiu & Chiang-chiu division) 泉漳片, Têochew (division) 潮汕片

<dt>Choân-chiu/Chiang-chiu accents 泉/漳腔</dt>
<dd>Accents derived from earlier mainland Choân-chiu dialect and earlier mainland Chiang-chiu dialect 從大陸老泉州腔與大陸老漳洲腔衍生的口音</dd>

- Choân-chiu dialect (= strong Choân-chiu accents). Examples:\
（重）泉州腔。例如：
- (Old) Lùkǎng accent （老派）鹿港腔
- (Weak) Choân-chiu accents (= northern accents). Examples:\
（輕）偏泉腔（= 北部腔）。例如：
- Táipěi accent 臺北腔
- (Weak) Chiang-chiu accents (= southern accents). Examples:\
（輕）偏漳腔（= 南部腔）。例如：
- Kāohsiúng accent 高雄腔
- Táinán accent 臺南腔
- Chiang-chiu dialect (= strong Chiang-chiu accents). Examples:\
（重）漳洲腔。例如：
- Yílán accent 宜蘭腔

<dt>The Sìxiàn dialect<u>s</u> 四縣<u>諸</u>腔</dt>
<dd>(Northern) Sìxiàn dialect （北）四縣腔 & Sourthern Sìxiàn dialect 南四縣腔</dd>

<dt>Phonetic segments 音段</dt>
<dd>Consonants and Vowels 輔音與元音</dd>

- In the phonological definition, "consonants" (the syllable initial(s) and on) and "vowels" (the syllable nucleus and on) are differed by their role in a syllable.\
音韻學定義上的「子音」（聲母等）與「母音」（韻母等）的區分以音位在音節結構中的角色定義。
- In the phonetic definition, "consonants" and "vowels" are differed by whether there is any stricture in the vocal tract when pronounced. \
語音學定義上的「子音」（輔音）與「母音」（元音）的區分以發音時發聲道有無縮窄之處定義。
- In this article, the phonetic definition is used for English. For Chinese, the ambiguous terminologies *Zǐyīn* & *Mǔyīn* are avoided and instead the specialized terminologies for the phonological definition *Shēngmǔ* & *Yùnmǔ* and for the phonetic definition *Fǔyīn* & *Yuányīn* are used. \
本文中，英文使用語音學的定義，中文則避免使用歧義術語「子音」與「母音」，而使用特指音韻學定義的「聲母」與「韻母」與特指語音學定義的「輔音」與「元音」。

<dt>Tone Modifications 泛變調</dt>
<dd>Tone sandhi 連續變調 & tone changes 語素變調</dd>

- Tone sandhi always occurs. The realization may vary from person to person but does not affect the semantics of utterance if no confusions caused by homophones occur.\
連續變調必定發生，其中發音細節可因人而異，但若無同音混淆則不影響語義。
- Tone changes are optional and whether they occur or not may affect the semantics of utterance.\
語素變調可不發生，而發生與否可能影響語義。

</dl>

## Remarks of grapheme tables 音標字素表格凡例

`⟨⟩ (None)` denotes that the phone is _not transcribed_ in CTL.\
`⟨⟩ (None)` 表示 CTL 音標 _不標出_ 此音。

Fields with dedicated IPA symbols are filled with their IPA.\
對有專用的國際音標符號的欄位，標出其國際音標。

Fields filled with a :x: are judged by phonologists to be _impossible_ to pronounce.\
被填入 :x: 的欄位是語音學家認為 _不可能_ 的發音。

*italic* denotes that the phone is transcribed using **TL** grapheme in CTL but the grapheme is not used to transcribe the phone in conventional usages of TL. The phones transcribed by this grapheme in both CTL and TL still belong to the same phoneme.\
*斜體* 表示該語音在 CTL 中以 **臺羅音標** 中既有的字素標出，但在臺羅音標中該字素慣例上不表示此語音。該字素在 CTL 中所表示的語音與臺羅音標中慣例上所表示的語音仍屬於同一音位。

**Bold** items are graphemes introduced in CTL which are not present in TL.\
**粗體**表示 CTL 引入的不存在於臺羅拼音的字素。

Graphemes grouped by `{}` mean `{condition-1: ⟨CTL-1⟩; condition-2: ⟨CTL-2⟩}`: Different transcriptions are used for the phone according to the analyzed belonging phoneme.\
被 `{}` 分組的字素表示 `{條件-1: ⟨CTL-1⟩; 條件-2: ⟨CTL-2⟩}`：該語音被分析成屬於不同音位時使用不同標音法。

- The condition `/phonetic/` means "if this phone and the denoted phonetic both belong to the same phoneme (not necessarily written as the denoted phonetic)".\
條件 `/音標/` 表示「若此語音與所述音標屬於同一音位（未必寫為所述音標）」。

## Overview 概覽

### Syllable Structure 音節結構

| Symbol <br> 符號 | Term. in Phonology <br> 音韻學名稱 | Terms. in Chinese Phonology <br> 漢語音韻學名稱 | Components defined in CTL <br> CTL 中定義的成份
| --- | --- | --- | --- |
ι (iota) | Initial 首位 | *Shēngmǔ* 聲母 | Non-semivowel consonant phoneme(s) 非半元音輔音音位
φ (phi) | Final 尾位 | *Yùnmǔ* 韻母 | Medial 韻頭, nucleus 韻腹, & coda 韻尾
μ (mu) | Medial 中間位 | *Yùntóu* 韻頭 <br> *Jièmǔ* 介母 | Vowel or non-obstruent non-nasal consonant phoneme(s) 元音或非阻礙音非鼻音輔音音位
ν (nu) | Nucleus 音節核 | *Yùnfù* 韻腹 <br> Main *yùnmǔ* 主要韻母 | A monophthong Vowel or single consonant phoneme 單個單元音或輔音音位
κ (kappa) | Coda 音節尾 | *Yùnwěi* 韻尾 | Vowel or semivowel phoneme(s) 元音或半元音音位 (κ_V) <br> or consonant phoneme 或輔音音位 (κ_C)
τ (tau) | Tone 聲調 | *Shēngdiào* 聲調 | A [toneme](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tone_(linguistics)) 單個[聲調音位](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/聲調)

The syllable initial and medial have their pronouncing duration overlapping significantly and are considered to belong to a single phonetic segment.\
聲母與韻頭的實際發音時間顯著重疊，以下視為屬於單一音段。

The syllable tone applies to the whole unstressed syllable but is only expressed during voiced non-obstruent phonetic segments.\
聲調作用於整個非輕讀音節，但僅呈現於其濁非阻礙音語音音段。

In languages or dialects to which CTL is applicable, the pronunciation of a syllable initial which is empty or consists of only the null phoneme is either the continuation of the previous or the next phone or a glottal stop ([ʔ]).\
在 CTL 適用的語言與方言中，聲母為空或零音位時，實際發音為其前或後的語音的延續或是聲門塞音 ([ʔ])。

Except for the syllable nucleus, all the other syllable components may be empty.\
除了韻腹外，其它音節成份皆可為空。

A syllable with any non-semivowel consonant phoneme codas is a closed syllable and otherwise an open syllable.\
音節有非半元音輔音音位韻尾者為閉音節，否則為開音節。

The syllable weight of different syllable structures is listed in the following table.\
以下表格列出不同音節結構的音重。

The weight of a short phonetic segment is defined to be 1 and the weight of a long vowel phonetic segment to be 2 below.\
以下定義短音段的音重為 1，長元音音段的音重為 2。

| Weight <br> 音重 | | | | | Appearances in CTL <br> CTL 出現處 | Other Appearances <br> 其它出現處
| --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
2 | ι(+μ) | ν | | | Unstressed open syllables 非重讀開音節 | Cantonese 廣東粵語: Open monophthong syllables with short nucleus 短韻腹單元音開音節
3 | ι(+μ) | ν | ν | | Stressed open syllables 重讀開音節 | Cantonese 廣東粵語: Open monophthong syllables with long nucleus 長韻腹單元音開音節
3 | ι(+μ) | ν | κ | | Closed monophthong syllables 單元音閉音節 <br> Open diphthong syllables 複元音開音節 |
4 | ι(+μ) | ν | κ_V | κ_C | Táiwānese Hokkièn 臺灣閩南語: Finals 韻母 auh /awʔ/ & iauh /jawʔ/ | Têochew 閩南語潮汕片: Final 韻母 oih /ojʔ/ <br> Hókchĕw 閩東語福州話
4 | ι(+μ) | ν | ν | κ | (None 無) | Cantonese 廣東粵語: Closed or diphthong syllable with long nucleus 長韻腹閉或複元音音節

The syllable length is related to the syllable weight and the length of pause-less utterance is related to the sum of the syllable weight of each syllable.\
音節長度與音重相關，而無停頓的發語長度與各音節音重總和相關。

### Syllable Initials 聲母

Items separated by `/` mean [`voiceless / voiced`](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)).
被 `/` 分開的表示 [`清音 / 濁音`](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/清濁音)。

Items not separated by `/` are _voiceless_.
沒有被 `/` 分開的表示 _清音_。

| | [Bilabial](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_consonant) <br> [雙唇音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/双唇音) | [Labiodental](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labiodental_consonant) <br> [唇齒音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/唇齒音) | [Dental](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dental_consonant) & [Alveolar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant) <br> [齒音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/齿音)、[齦音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/齿龈音) | [Post-alveolar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postalveolar_consonant) <br> [齦後音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/齒齦後音) | ([Alveolo&#8288;--](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant))[palatal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_consonant) <br> ([齦&#8288;--](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/龈腭音))[硬齶音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/硬腭音) | [Velar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant) <br> [軟齶音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/软腭音) | [Glottal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_consonant) <br> [聲門音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/聲門音)
|:--- |:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:
[Nasal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant) [鼻音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/鼻音_(辅音)) | / [m]&nbsp;⟨m⟩ | / [ɱ] | / [n]&nbsp;⟨n⟩ | / [ɳ] | / [ȵ]\~[ɲ]&nbsp;⟨gn⟩^{Note:⟨gn⟩} | / [ŋ]&nbsp;⟨ng⟩ | :x:
Un[aspirated](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirated_consonant) [stop](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosive) 不[送氣](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/送氣)[塞音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/塞音) | [p]&nbsp;⟨p⟩ / [b]&nbsp;⟨b⟩ | | [t]&nbsp;⟨t⟩ / <br> [d] {/l/:&nbsp;**⟨dl⟩** ^{Note:⟨dl⟩}; <br> else:&nbsp;**⟨d⟩**} | [ʈ] / [ɖ] | [c] {k/\_\_j:&nbsp;⟨k(i)⟩} <br> / [ɟ] {g/\_\_j:&nbsp;⟨g(i)⟩} | [k]&nbsp;⟨k⟩ / [ɡ]&nbsp;⟨g⟩ | [ʔ] {∅/^\_\_Ⓥ:&nbsp;⟨⟩&nbsp;(None)} <br> / :x:
Aspirated stop 送氣塞音 | [pʰ]&nbsp;⟨ph⟩ | | [tʰ]&nbsp;⟨th⟩ | | [cʰ] {kʰ/\_\_j:&nbsp;⟨kh(i)⟩} | [kʰ]&nbsp;⟨kh⟩
Unaspirated [sibilant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibilant) [affricate](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate) 不送氣[有噝](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/咝音)[塞擦音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/塞擦音) | :x: | :x: | [ts]&nbsp;⟨ts⟩ / [dz]&nbsp;**⟨dj⟩**^{Note:⟨dj⟩} | [tʃ]\~&#8288;[ʈʂ]&nbsp;**⟨tsr⟩** | [tɕ]&nbsp;{ts/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨tsc⟩**; <br> tʃ/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨tsr(i)⟩**} <br> / [dʑ]&nbsp;{dz/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨djz⟩** ^{Note:⟨dj⟩}; <br> dʒ/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨djr(i)⟩**} | :x: | :x:
Aspirated sibilant affricate 送氣有噝塞擦音 | :x: | :x: | [tsʰ]&nbsp;⟨tsh⟩ | [tʃʰ]\~&#8288;[ʈʂʰ]&nbsp;**⟨tsrh⟩** | [tɕʰ]&nbsp;{tsʰ/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨tsch⟩**; <br> tʃʰ/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨tsrh(i)⟩**} | :x: | :x:
Sibilant [fricative](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative) 有噝[擦音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/擦音) | :x: | :x: | [s]&nbsp;⟨s⟩ / <br> [z]&nbsp;⟨j⟩ | [ʃ]\~&#8288;[ʂ]&nbsp;**⟨sr⟩** / <br> [ʒ]\~&#8288;[ʐ]&nbsp;**⟨jr⟩** | [ɕ]&nbsp;{s/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨sc⟩**; <br> ʃ/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨sr(i)⟩**} <br> / [ʑ]&nbsp;{dz/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨jz⟩**; <br> ʒ/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨jr(i)⟩**} | :x: | :x:
Non-sibilant fricative 無噝擦音 | [ɸ] / [β] | [f]&nbsp;**⟨f⟩** / [v]&nbsp;**⟨v⟩** | [θ] / [ð] | | [ç] {h/\_\_j:&nbsp;⟨h(i)⟩; <br> x/\_\_j:&nbsp;**⟨x(i)⟩**} <br> / [ʝ] | [x] <br>{/h/:&nbsp;_⟨h⟩_ ^Note:x; <br> else:&nbsp;**⟨x⟩**} / [ɣ] | [h]&nbsp;⟨h⟩ / [ɦ]
[Approximant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Approximant) [近音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/近音) | | / [ʋ] {/v/:&nbsp;**⟨v⟩**} | / [ɹ] | / [ɹ̠]~[ɻ] <br> {/ʐ/:&nbsp;**⟨jr⟩**; <br> ∅/^\_\_j:&nbsp;⟨⟩&nbsp;(None) ^Note:ɹ̠} | / [j]&nbsp;_⟨i⟩_ | / [ɰ] | (= Fricative 擦音)
[Lateral](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lateral_consonant) approximant [邊](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/边音)近音 | (= Approximant 近音) | (= Approximant 近音) | / [l] {/d/:&nbsp;**⟨dl⟩** ^{Note:⟨dl⟩}; <br> else:&nbsp;⟨l⟩} | / [ɭ] | / [ʎ] | / [ʟ] | :x:
[Rounded](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labialization) Approximant [圓唇](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/唇音化)近音 | | | | | / [ɥ]^Note:ɥ&nbsp;**⟨y⟩** | [ʍ] / [w]&nbsp;_⟨u⟩_
(lateral) [Tap](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants) （邊）[閃音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/闪音) | | / [ⱱ] | / ([ɺ])\~&#8288;[ɾ]&nbsp;**⟨dl⟩**^{Note:⟨dl⟩} | / [ɽ] | | :x:

<details><summary>Inline notes</summary>

*[Note:⟨gn⟩]: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Éng-tsēng old Chiang-chiu dialect　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語永靖老漳州腔
*[Note:⟨dj⟩]: (TL: "j") Occurs in Táiwānese Hokkièn Choân-chiu accents　見於臺灣閩南語偏泉腔口音
*[Note:⟨dl⟩]: [ᵈl] The "l" (TL) of Táiwānese Hokkièn　臺灣閩南語的 "l" (臺羅)
*[Note:ɹ̠]: Occurs in Táiwānese Hakka Southern Sìxiàn dialect　見於臺灣客家語南四縣腔
*[Note:x]: The pronunciation of Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "H" in Mainland Standard Mandarin　注音聲母「ㄏ」的大陸標準漢語發音
*[Note:ɥ]: Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "Yu" as medial　注音介母「ㄩ」
</details>

**Note ⟨gn⟩**: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Éng-tsēng old Chiang-chiu dialect　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語永靖老漳州腔 \
**Note ⟨dj⟩**: (TL: "j") Occurs in Táiwānese Hokkièn Choân-chiu accents　見於臺灣閩南語偏泉腔口音 \
**Note ⟨dl⟩**: [ᵈl] The "l" (TL) of Táiwānese Hokkièn　臺灣閩南語的 "l" (臺羅) \
**Note ɹ̠**: Occurs in Táiwānese Hakka Southern Sìxiàn dialect　見於臺灣客家語南四縣腔 \
**Note x**: The pronunciation of Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "ㄏ/H" in Mainland Standard Mandarin　注音符號/漢語拼音聲母「ㄏ/h」的大陸標準漢語發音 \
**Note ɥ**: Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "ㄩ/Yu" as a medial　注音符號/漢語拼音介母「ㄩ/yu」

- The **post-alveolar** series contains **[retroflex](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retroflex_consonant)**, **[palato--alveolar](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palato-alveolar_consonant) (_domed (partially palatalized) post-alveolar_)**, and **[alveolo--palatal](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolo-palatal_consonant) (_palatalized post-alveolar_)** consonants. In this table, the first two are placed into the same column, while the last one is placed into its own column.\
**齦後音** 系列包含 **[捲舌音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/捲舌音)**、**[齶--齦音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/齦硬腭音)（_拱 (部份齶化) 齦後音_）**、與 **[齦--硬齶音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/龈腭音)（_齶化齦後音_）** 三類輔音。本表將前兩類列進同一列，而最後一類獨立列出。
- Palatalized **palato--alveolar** is equivalent to **alveolo--palatal**. Examples:\
齶化的**齶--齦音**等價於**齦--硬齶音**，例如：
- ⟨sri⟩ /ʃj/: [ɕ]~[ʂj]
- ⟨jri⟩ /ʒj/: [ʑ]~[ʐj]
- All **alveolo--palatal** are palatalized and thus implicitly contain the medial /j/. Such palatalization is still transcribed with ⟨i⟩ for medial+rime analysis. Examples:\
**齦--硬齶音**皆已齶化而隱含地帶介音 /j/。此時齶化仍標音為 ⟨i⟩ 以利韻母分析。例如：
- ⟨scia⟩ (not ~~⟨sca⟩~~) /ɕja/: [ɕʲa] ≡ [ɕa]
- ⟨jzia⟩ (not ~~⟨jza⟩~~) /ʑja/: [ʑʲa] ≡ [ʑa]
- The actual pronunciation of [h] before the syllable nucleus is the voiceless version of the phonetic segment immediately after the [h]. Also, all voiceless sonorants are implicitly aspirated. Such aspiration ([ʰ]) can be omitted from the IPA. Depending on the language and accent, voiceless approximants are sometimes pronounced as voiceless fricative instead. Examples:\
[h] 在主要韻母以前的實際發音是 [h] 後緊接的語音音段的清音化版本。此外，清音化的響音皆隱含送氣，此時國際音標不須標出送氣 ([ʰ])。視語言與口音，有時清音化的近音會發為清擦音。例如：
- ⟨ha⟩ /ha/: [å̯ʰa] ≡ [å̯a]
- ⟨hor⟩ /hə/: [ə̥̯ʰə] ≡ [ə̥̯ə]
- ⟨hioong⟩ /hjɔŋ/: [j̥ʰɔŋ] ≡ \[j̥ɔŋ](~[çɔŋ])
- ⟨hm⟩ /hm̩/~/hᵊm̩/: [m̥ʰm̩]~[ə̥̯ʰm̩] ≡ [m̥m̩]~[ə̥̯m̩]

## Syllable Coda 韻尾

※ Vowel-like codas are listed in the next section.　類元音韻尾在下一節列出。

`⟨-◌⟩` denotes the grapheme `◌` in the coda position.\
`⟨-◌⟩` 表示處於韻尾位置的字素 `◌`。

| | Bilabial <br> 雙唇音 | Alveolar <br> 齦音 | Velar <br> 軟齶音 | Glottal <br> 聲門音 | None <br> 無
|:--- |:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:
Nasal([ized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_vowel)) 鼻([化](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/鼻化元音))音 | [m]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;m⟩ | [n]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;n⟩ | [ŋ]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;ng⟩ | | [◌&#8288;̃]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;nn⟩
[Rhotacized](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R-colored_vowel) [兒化音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/日化元音) | | | | | [◌˞&nbsp;]&nbsp;**⟨-&#8288;rr⟩** |
[Stop with no audible release](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_audible_release) [無聲除阻塞音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/無聲除阻) | [p̚]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;p⟩ | [t̚]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;t⟩ | [k̚]&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;k⟩ | [ʔ] ⟨-&#8288;h⟩ | :x:
None 無 | :x: | :x: | :x: | :x: | [] <br> {/&#8288;ʔ/:&nbsp;⟨-&#8288;h⟩; <br> else:&nbsp;⟨⟩&nbsp;(None)}

※ ⟨-nn⟩ may appear before other codas.　⟨-nn⟩ 可出現在其他韻尾前。

- TL "**-nn**h" [◌&#8288;**̃**ʔ] ⟨**-nn**h⟩: Occurs in Táiwānese Hokkièn 見於臺灣閩南語
- **-ㄥ**ㄦ/**-ng**r [◌&#8288;**̃**˞ ] ⟨**-nn**rr⟩: Nasalization and rhotacization; occurs in Standard Mandarin; rarely occurs in colloquial Táiwānese Mandarin　兒化鼻化音；見於標準漢語；臺灣標準漢語口語罕見
- THRS "-**nn**d" [◌&#8288;**̃**t̚] ⟨**-nn**t⟩: Occurs in Táiwānese Hakka 見於臺灣客家語

The release phase of **stop with no audible release** is overlapped with a glottal stop [ʔ] when followed by a stressed syllable with null initial. Examples:\
當後接重讀的零聲母音節時，**無聲除阻塞音**的除阻階段會帶聲門塞音 [ʔ]。例如：

- ⟨-p a⟩ /p̚ a/: [p̚ʔ a]\~[p̚͜ʔ a]
- ⟨-t a⟩ /t̚ a/: [t̚ʔ a]\~[t̚͜ʔ a]
- ⟨-k a⟩ /k̚ a/: [k̚ʔ a]\~[k̚͜ʔ a]

## Syllable Medial/Nucleus/Coda 韻頭/韻腹/韻尾

### Vowels and semivowels 元音與半元音

Items separated by `/` mean [`unrounded / rounded`](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundedness).\
被 `/` 分開的項目表示 [`不圓唇 / 圓唇`](zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/元音圓唇度)。

| | Front Approximant 前近音 | [Front](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front_vowel) [前](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/前元音) | [Central](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_vowel) [央](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/央元音) | [Back](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back_vowel) [後](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/後元音) | Back Approximant 後近音 |
|:---|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:
Close [Semivowel](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semivowel) 閉[半元音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/半元音) | [ɹ]\~[ɻ] / | [j]\~&#8288;[i̯]&nbsp;_⟨i⟩_ / [ɥ]^Note:ɥ\~&#8288;[y̯]&nbsp;**⟨y⟩** | | [ɰ] / [w]\~&#8288;[u̯]&nbsp;_⟨u⟩_ | [ʁ] /
[Close](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close_vowel) [閉](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/閉元音) | :x: | [i]&nbsp;⟨i⟩ / <br> [y]^Note:y&nbsp;**⟨y⟩** | [ɨ]&nbsp;⟨ir⟩^{Note:⟨ir⟩} <br> / [ʉ] | [ɯ] / [u]&nbsp;⟨u⟩ | [ʁ] /
[Near-close](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-close_vowel) [次閉](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/次閉元音) | :x: | [ɪ] / [ʏ] | | / [ʊ]^Note:ʊ <br> {ɔ/\_\_ŋ\$:&nbsp;_⟨oo/o⟩_; <br> /u/:&nbsp;⟨u⟩} | [ʁ] /
[Close-mid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Close-mid_vowel) [半閉](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/半閉元音) | :x: | [e]&nbsp;⟨e⟩ / [ø] | [ɘ]&nbsp;⟨er⟩^{Note:⟨er⟩} <br> / [ɵ] | [ɤ]^Note:ɤ&nbsp;_⟨o/or⟩_ <br> / [o] <br> {/ə/:&nbsp;⟨o⟩; <br> /ɔ/:&nbsp;⟨oo⟩; <br> else:&nbsp;⟨oo/o⟩} | [ʁ] /
[Mid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid_vowel) [中](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/中元音) | :x: | | [ə] <br> {/&#8288;ə/:&nbsp;⟨o/or⟩; <br> /ɘ/,/ə̯/:&nbsp;⟨er⟩^{Note:⟨er⟩}} | | [ʁ]\~[ʕ] /
[Open-mid](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-mid_vowel) [半開](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/半開元音) | :x: | [ɛ] <br> {/e/:&nbsp;⟨e⟩; <br> else:&nbsp;⟨ee⟩} <br> / [œ] | [ɜ] / [ɞ] | [ʌ] / [ɔ]&nbsp;⟨oo⟩ | [ʕ] /
[Near-open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-open_vowel) [次開](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/次開元音) | :x: | [æ] / [ɶ] | [ɐ]^Note:ɐ&nbsp;⟨a⟩ | | [ʕ] /
[Open](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_vowel) [開](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/開元音) | :x: | [a] <br> {/ɐ/:&nbsp;⟨a⟩} <br> / [ɶ] | (≒ /a/) <br> / (≒ /ɶ/) | [ɑ] / [ɒ] | [ʕ] /

Nasalized ([◌⁠̃]) syllable finals are transcribed with ⟨-⁠nn⟩ appended after any vowel-like codas (if any) or otherwise after the nucleus.\
鼻化 ([◌⁠̃]) 韻母以 ⟨-⁠nn⟩ 接在類元音韻尾（若有）或韻腹後標音。

| | Front 前 | Back 後 |
|:---|:---:|:---:|
Close Semivowel 閉半元音 | [j⁠̃]\~&#8288;[i̯⁠̃]&nbsp;_⟨inn⟩_ / | / [w⁠̃]\~&#8288;[u̯⁠̃]&nbsp;_⟨unn⟩_ |
Close 閉 | [ĩ]&nbsp;⟨inn⟩ / | / [ũ]&nbsp;⟨unn⟩
Close-mid 半閉 | [ẽ]&nbsp;⟨enn⟩ / |
Open-mid 半開 | [ɛ̃]&nbsp;⟨eenn⟩^{Note:⟨eenn⟩} / | / [ɔ̃]&nbsp;**⟨oonn⟩**
Open 開 | [ã] <br> {/&#8288;ɐ̃/:&nbsp;⟨ann⟩} |

Rhotacized ([◌˞ ]) syllable finals are transcribed with **⟨-⁠rr⟩** appended after ⟨-⁠nn⟩ (if any) or otherwise in place of ⟨-⁠nn⟩.\
兒化 ([◌˞ ]) 韻母以 **⟨-⁠rr⟩** 接在 ⟨-⁠nn⟩ 後（若有）或置於 ⟨-⁠nn⟩ 處標音.

| | Central 央 | (Nasalized 鼻化) | Back 後 | (Nasalized 鼻化) |
|:---|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|
Close Semivowel 閉半元音 | | | / [ʊ˞̯ ]&nbsp;**⟨urr⟩** |
Close 閉 | | | / [u˞ ]&nbsp;**⟨urr⟩** | / [u⁠̃˞ ]&nbsp;**⟨unnrr⟩**
Mid 中 | [ɚ]&nbsp;**⟨orr/orrr⟩** | [ɚ⁠̃]&nbsp;**⟨onnrr/ornnrr⟩** | [ɤ˞&nbsp;]&nbsp;**⟨orr/orrr⟩** / [o˞ ]&nbsp;**⟨oorr⟩** | [ɤ⁠̃˞&nbsp;]&nbsp;**⟨onnrr/ornnrr⟩** / |

<details><summary>Inline notes</summary>

*[Note:y]: Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "ㄩ/Yu"　注音符號/漢語拼音「ㄩ/yu」
*[Note:ʊ]: The nucleus of Standard Mandarin syllables "Dōng/Tōng/Nòng" (-"o"ng) in Mainland Standard Mandarin; [o] in Táiwānese Mandarin　標準漢語「東通弄」等字韻腹（-"ㄨ"ㄥ）的大陸標準漢語發音；臺灣標準漢語中為 [o]。The transcription will be changed to ⟨u⟩ for Mainland Standard Mandarin　大陸標準漢語發音將改標為 ⟨u⟩
*[Note:ɤ]: Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "ㄜ/E"　注音符號/漢語拼音「ㄜ/e」
*[Note:ɐ]: The (first) nucleus of Standard Mandarin finals "-ianr" and "-üanr"　標準漢語韻母 "ㄧㄢㄦ" 與 "ㄩㄢㄦ" 之韻腹
*[Note:⟨ir⟩]: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Choân-chiu accents　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語偏泉腔口音
*[Note:⟨er⟩]: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Choân-chiu accents　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語偏泉腔口音
*[Note:⟨eenn⟩]: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Éng-tsēng old Chiang-chiu dialect　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語永靖老漳州腔
</details>

**Note y**: Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "ㄩ/Yu"　注音符號/漢語拼音「ㄩ/yu」 \
**Note ʊ**: The nucleus of Standard Mandarin syllables *Dōng*/*Tōng*/*Nòng* (-**o**ng) in Mainland Standard Mandarin; [**o**] in Táiwānese Mandarin　標準漢語「東通弄」等字韻腹（-**ㄨ**ㄥ）的大陸標準漢語發音；臺灣標準漢語中為 [**o**] <br> ***The transcription will be changed to ⟨**u**⟩ for Mainland Standard Mandarin　大陸標準漢語發音將改標為 ⟨**u**⟩*** \
**Note ɤ**: Bopomofo/Pīnyīn "ㄜ/E"　注音符號/漢語拼音「ㄜ/e」 \
**Note ɐ**: The (first) nucleus of Standard Mandarin finals "-ianr" and "-üanr"　標準漢語韻母 "ㄧㄢㄦ" 與 "ㄩㄢㄦ" 之韻腹 \
**Note ⟨ir⟩**: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Choân-chiu accents　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語偏泉腔口音 \
**Note ⟨er⟩**: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Choân-chiu accents　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語偏泉腔口音 \
**Note ⟨eenn⟩**: In TL, used in Táiwānese Hokkièn Éng-tsēng old Chiang-chiu dialect　臺羅中，用於臺灣閩南語永靖老漳州腔

### [Syllabic consonant](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_consonant) [成音節輔音](https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/音節輔音)

| | Bilabial <br> 雙唇音 | Alveolar <br> 齦音 | Post-alveolar <br> 齦後音 | Velar <br> 軟齶音
|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:|:---:
| Nasal 鼻音 | [(ə̯)m̩] ⟨m⟩ | [(ə̯)n̩]^Note:n̩ ⟨n⟩ | | [(ə̯)ŋ̍] ⟨ng⟩
| Approximant 近音 | | [ɹ̩]^Note:ㄭ1 _⟨ir⟩_ | [ɻ̩]^Note:ㄭ2 _⟨ir⟩_

<details><summary>Inline notes</summary>

*[Note:n̩]: Occurs in Táiwānese Hakka　見於臺灣客家語
*[Note:ㄭ1]: The nucleus of Standard Mandarin syllables "Zī/Cī/Sī"　標準漢語「資雌斯」等字的主要韻母
*[Note:ㄭ2]: The nucleus of Standard Mandarin syllables "Zhī/Chī/Shī/Rì"　標準漢語「之吃施日」等字的主要韻母
</details>

**Note n̩**: Occurs in Táiwānese Hakka　見於臺灣客家語 \
**Note ㄭ1**: The nucleus of Standard Mandarin syllables *Zī*/*Cī*/*Sī*　標準漢語「資雌斯」等字的主要韻母 \
**Note ㄭ2**: The nucleus of Standard Mandarin syllables *Zhī*/*Chī*/*Shī*/*Rì*　標準漢語「之吃施日」等字的主要韻母

## Syllable Tones 音節聲調

Tones are transcribed with a language prefix digit and a tone category number.\
聲調以單數碼語言前綴加上聲調調類數字表示。

A tone underwent tone modifications is transcribed as `<original-tone>→<pronounced-tone>` or simply as `→<pronounced-tone>`. This is a temporary convention of this article.\
經過泛變調的聲調以 `<原調>→<實際發音聲調>` 或單以 `→<實際發音聲調>` 表示。此為本文暫定慣例。

The language prefix digit can be omitted for one-digit tone number in Táiwānese Hokkièn.\
臺灣閩南語的單數碼聲調數字的語言前綴數碼可省略。

For solely describing the tone, the language prefix of one-digit tone number is omitted of simplicity.\
僅單獨描述聲調時，省略單數碼聲調的語言前綴以示簡潔。

⟨\*⟩ denotes a syllable with any tone.\
⟨\*⟩ 表示帶任一聲調的音節。

See the tone tables below for details.\
詳見以下的聲調表格。

## Language Transcription Specification 語言標音方式

Non-CTL morphemes is listed in its basic form.\
非 CTL 字素以其基本型態列出。

In the following tables, an item in parentheses represents a frequently used allophone of a certain phoneme.\
下列表格中以括號包圍的元素表示某特定音素的常用同位異音。

To get the corresponding IPA and CTL of a final from the following final tables, find the final in non-CTL phonetic notation and then concatenate the IPA/CTL on the leftmost column of the row and the coda IPA/CTL on the topmost row of the column.\
在以下韻母的表格中，找到非 CTL 標音的韻母後，將橫排最左的 IPA/CTL 與縱排最上方的韻尾 IPA/CTL 相接即為該韻母所對應的國際音標或 CTL。

- However, the IPA following the non-CTL final (if any) is taken instead.\
但以非 CTL 韻母後附的國際音標（若有）為優先。

The enclosing `⟨⟩` for CTL tone numbers is omitted from the following tone tables.\
以下聲調表格中的 CTL 聲調數字省略括起其的 `⟨⟩`。

`⟨tone⟩` means the pronunciation is the same as `tone`.\
`⟨聲調⟩` 表示讀法與 `聲調` 相同。

Tone contour preceded by `→` denotes the pronunciation when the syllable is not in a citation-tone&ndash;reading position and the tone is used after applying tone modification rules.\
前有 `→` 的聲調輪廓，表示用於不為讀本調位置的音節在套用泛變調規則後變為此調時的發音。

:x: in tone tables represents a non-existing tone.\
聲調表格中的 :x: 表示無此聲調。

### Táiwānese Hokkièn 臺灣閩南語

→ <https://hackmd.io/@IID/Common-TL-Phonetic-Taiwanese-Hokkien>

### Táiwānese Hakka 臺灣客家語

→ <https://hackmd.io/@IID/Common-TL-Phonetic-Taiwanese-Hakka>

### Standard Mandarin 標準漢語

→ <https://hackmd.io/@IID/Common-TL-Phonetic-Standard-Mandarin>

*[IPA]: International Phonetic Alphabet 國際音標

*[CTL]: Common TL 通用 TL

*[Common TL]: Common TL 通用 TL

*[TL]: Tâi-Lô; Táiwānese Romanization System 臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案

*[臺羅]: Táiwānese Romanization System 臺灣閩南語羅馬字拼音方案

*[POJ]: Pe̍h-ōe-jī 白話字

*[白話字]: Pe̍h-ōe-jī 白話字

*[THRS]: Táiwānese Hakka Romanization System 臺灣客家語拼音方案

*[客家語拼音]: Táiwānese Hakka Romanization System 臺灣客家語拼音方案

## References 參考資料

- Wikipedia contributors. (2023, February 18). International Phonetic Alphabet. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 08:04, March 5, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=International_Phonetic_Alphabet&oldid=1140012525
- 音节. (2023, January 2). Retrieved from *维基百科, 自由的百科全书*: https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E9%9F%B3%E8%8A%82&oldid=75332698
- Wikipedia contributors. (2022, October 5). Distinctive feature. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 12:12, March 5, 2023, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Distinctive_feature&oldid=1114190186
- Wikipedia contributors. (2022, October 9). Approximant. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 12:25, November 18, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Approximant&oldid=1115056856
- Wikipedia contributors. (2022, September 30). No audible release. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 12:42, November 18, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=No_audible_release&oldid=1113171150
- Wikipedia contributors. (2021, August 19). Taiwanese Hokkien. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 19:22, September 2, 2021, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taiwanese_Hokkien&oldid=1039625767
- Wikipedia contributors. (2022, February 7). Help:IPA/Taiwanese Hokkien. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 22:05, November 18, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Help:IPA/Taiwanese_Hokkien&oldid=1070451553
- 臺灣客家語. (2022, July 25). Retrieved from *维基百科, 自由的百科全书*: https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=臺灣客家語&oldid=72889669
- Wikipedia contributors. (2022, August 18). Standard Chinese phonology. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 12:55, September 7, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_Chinese_phonology&oldid=1105146867
- Wikipedia contributors. (2022, October 17). Pinyin. In *Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia*. Retrieved 15:49, November 18, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pinyin&oldid=1116624611