# Working with teams

###### tags: `SPM`

## Usage and perceptions of Agile Software Development in an Industrial Context: An Exploratory Study

How is ASD methodologies are used

**Scaling**
**Coordination**
**Empirical body of knowledge**
**Product and process: measurement**
**Tools and resources**
**Ethnographic studies**

## SPM5

### Chapter 11: Managing people in software environments

Organizational behaviour (OB)
four concerns in the chapter:
1. staff selection
2. staff development
3. staff modivation
4. continued well-being of staff during the couse of project

Places in the Spet Wise framework where staffing concerns are important.

#### Understanding behaviour

The dicipline OB has envolved theories that try to explain peoples behaviour. "if A is the situation then B is likely to result".
Unlike physical science it is rarely, if ever, that it can be said that B must follow A.

Interpretivist school:
thought can be contrasted with the positive one,
Interpretivist point out that many concepts are not objective but are inter-subjective ones created by human beings.

Two viewpoints:
1. positivist
2. interpretivist

#### Organizational behaviour: a background

3 basic objectives:
1. to select the best people for the job
2. to instruct them in the best methods
3. to give incentives in the form of higher wages to the best workers.

#### Selecting the right person for the job

The programmer with most experience is better.

But a good programmer is not "that" social --> good programmer --> bad leader in the future.

**The recruitment process**

Meredith Belbin: eligible and suitable candidates

Eligible candidates: have a CV which shows the 'right' number of years of experience

Suitable candidate: can acutally do the work well

A mistake is to choose a candidate that is eligiable but not suitable.

---
A general approach
- Create a job specification
- Create a job holder profile
- Obtain applicants
- Examine CV
- Interview ect.
- Other procedures

#### Instruction in the best methods

decisions will need to be made about whether a newcomer can more effectively pick up technical expertise on the job or on formal traning courses.

#### Motivation

Taylors concerns was that of motivation people to work.

**The Taylor model**
Piece-rates:
- where workers are paid a fixed sum for each item they produce. Day-rates refer to payment for time worked.

Piece-rates can cause difficulties if a new system will change work practices.

Group norms:
- discussed futher under group discisions making

**Maslows hierachy of needs**
The motivation of individuals varies.

Level of needs
A lower level of needs is satisfied then gradually a higher level of needs emerges.

low level:
- food, shelter, personal safely

high level:
- the need for 'self-actualization', the feeling that you are completely fulfilling your potential.

Some individual differences in motivation relate simply to personality differences. Some staff have 'growth needs' (interested in their work and want to develop their work roles) while other just see the job as a way of earning a living.

**Herzberg two-factor theory**

two factors about a job:

- hygiene or maintenance factors which can make you dissatisfied if they are not right, for example the level of pay or the working conditions.
- motivation, which can make you feel that the job is worthwhile, like a sense of achievement or the challenge of the work itself.

**The expertancy theory of motivation**

3 influences on motivation:
1. expectancy: the belief that working harder will lead to a better performance;
2. instrumentality: the belief that better performance will be rewarded;
3. percieved value: of the resulting reward

Motivation will be high when all 3 factors are high.

#### The Oldham-Hackman job characteristics model

suggest that the satisfaction that a job gives is based on five factors.
the first 3 factors make the job 'meaningful' to the person doing it
1. Skill variety: the number of different skills that the job holder has the oppotunity to exercise;
2. task identity: the degree to which your work and its results are identifiable as beloning to you;
3. Task significance: the degree to which your job has an influence on others.

The two other factors
4. autonomy: the discretion you have about the way you do the job;
5. feedback: the information you get back about the results of your work.

**Methods of improving motivation**

To improve motivation

- set specific goals
- provide feedback
- consider job design

#### Conclusion
Some of the important points

- people may be motivated by money, but they are motivated by other things as well
- both staff selection and the identification of traning needs should be done in an orderly, structred way where requirements are clearly defined first;
- thoughtful job design can increase staff motivation;
- undure pressure on staff can have short-term gains, but harmful to both productivity and personal health in longer term;
- project objectives should include, where appropriate those relating health and safety.

### Chapter 12: Working in teams

**Objectives: when you have read this chapter**
- improve group working;
- analyse the coordination needs of a project;
- select the best communication genres to support the coordination needs of a project;
- draw up a communication plan;
- evaluate the characteristics of the various team structures;
- use the most appropriate leadership styles;

#### Introduction
Associate software development with advanced technologies yet it is a task requiring intense human mental activity.
Software-based systems can be huge

´teams´usually mean group of people who work together.

#### Becoming a team

Suggested that teams go though 5 basic stages of development
1. forming: The members of the group get to know each other and try to set up sone ground rules about behaviour.
2. Storming: Conflicts arise as various members of the group try to exert leadership and the groups methods of operation are being established.
3. Norming: Conflicts are largely settled and a feeling of group identity emerges
4. Performing: The emphasis is now on the task at hand.
5. Adjourning: The group disbands.

Different belbin roles:
- The chair
- The plant
- the monitor-evaluator
- the shaper
- the team worker
- the resource
- the completer-finisher
- the company worker

**Group performance**

Categorizing group tasks:
- additive tasks: the efforts of each participant are added to the final result
- compensatory tasks: judgements of individual group members are pooled so errors are compensated
- disjunctive tasks: only one correct answer.
- conjuctive tasks: progress is governed by the rate of the slowest performer.

#### Decision making
Categorized as being:
- structuted: generally relatively simple, routine decision where rules can be applied in a fairly straghtforward way
- unstructed: more complex and often requiring a degree of creativity.

**Group decision making**

> A different type of participatory decision making might occur when end-users are consulted about the way a projected computer system to operate.

Group deal less effectively with poorly structured problems needing creative solutions.
Brainstorming techniques can help groups in this situation.

**Obstacles to good decision making**

It is time-comsuming, it can stir up conflicts within the group, and decisions can be unduly influenced by dominant personalities.

> once established, group norms can survive many changes of membership in the group.

People in groups sometimes make decisions that carry more risk than where they make the decisionon their own. --> risky shift.

**Measures to reduce the disadvantages of group decision making**

One method to make group decision more efficient and effective is by training members to follow a set procedure.

A procedure:
- the cooperation of a number of experts is enlisted
- the problem is presented to the experts
- the experts record their recommendations
- these recommendations are collated and reproduced
- the collected responses are recirculated
- The experts comment on the ideas of others and modify their recommendations if so moved
- if the leader detects a consensus then the process is stopped, otherwise the comments are recirculated to experts

**Scrum**
See other notes...

#### Organizational structures

Have an another lecture about this...
https://hackmd.io/uOle1amTTNWMygpgJzQx2Q?edit

#### Coordination dependencies
A coordination theory has been developed which provides a useful classification of coordination dependencies

- Shared resources
- Producer-customer (´right time´) relationship
- task-subtask dependencies
- accessibility (´right place´) dependencies
- usability (´right thing´) dependencies
- fit requirements

#### Communication genres


#### Leadership

Leadership is generally taken to mean the ability to influence others in a group to act in a particular way to achieve group goals.

A leader is not necessarily a good manager or vise versa, as managers have other roles such as organizing, planning and controlling.

Leadership is based on the idea of authority or power.
Power may come either from the persond position (position power) or from the persons individual qualities (personal power)

Position power:
- coercive power: ability to force someone to do something by treatening punishment
- connection power: based on having access to those who have power
- Legitimate power: based on the persons title coferring a special status
- reward power: holders can give rewards to those who carry out tasks to her satisfaction.

Personal power:
- expert power: being the person who is able to do a specialized task
- information power: the holder has exclusive access to information
- referent power: based on the personal attractiveness of the leader

**Leadership styles**

Attempts have been made to measure leadership styles on two axes:
directive vs. permissive and autocratic vs. democratic

Directive autocrat:
- makes decisions alone, close supervision of implementation

permissive autocrat: makes decisions alone, subordinates have latitude implementation

Directive democrat: makes decision participatively, close supervision of implementation

permissive democrat: makes decisions participatively, subordinates have latitude in implementation

#### Conclusion
Some important points

- consideration should be given, when forming a new project team, to getting the right mix of people and to planning activities which will promote team building
- group working is more effective with some types of activity than others
- the people who need communication most with each other should be grouped together organizationally
- different styles of leadership are needed in different situations
- care should be taken to identify the most effective way of communicating with project participants at key points in the project.

### Pictures taken from slides by Paolo
https://learnit.itu.dk/pluginfile.php/294973/mod_resource/content/0/%5BBSUP21%5D%20-%2011%20-%20Teams.pdf




**Definitions of forms of Cooperative Work**


**Operational definitions from a tool perspective**