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tags: 組織行為
---
# Ch5 筆記

## Explain Attribution Theory
* Defn: Attribution theory suggests that when we observe an individual’s behavior, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or externally caused
* Determination depends on three factors:
* Distinctiveness 特殊性或區分性
* 觀察對象是否對同類其它刺激做出不同的反應
* Consensus 共識性
* 不同人在面對相同刺激時，行為反應是
* 否與觀察對象的行為一樣
* Consistency 一致性
* 不同時間點、不同情境中，同一行為人面對同一刺激的反應是否相同
* differences between internal and external causation
* Internally caused 內在歸因
* 指個體將行為之發生解釋為自己性格使然

* Externally caused 外在歸因
* 將行為發生解釋為情境（環境）因素使然者


* Fundamental attribution error
* 人在解釋別人的行為原因時，傾向歸因於個人內在特質（一定是他有這樣的人格，才做出這樣的行為），而非外在情境因素（也許是情勢所迫，或這個場所有特殊的潛規則）

* Self-serving bias
* Individuals attribute their own successes to internal factors

* Common Shortcuts in Judging Others
* Selective perception選擇性認知
* Halo effect 月暈效果
* Contrast effects 對比效果
* Stereotyping

## Explain the Link Between Perception and Decision Making
* bounded rationality
* A limited list of the more conspicuous choices is identified
* The decision maker then reviews the list, looking for a solution that is “good enough
* 決策者在決策中追求“滿意”標準，而非最優標準 - 因為人的知識有限
* Most people respond to a complex problem by reducing it to a level at which it can be readily understood.
* They construct simplified models that extract the essential features

* Intuitive decision making
* occurs outside conscious thought; it relies on holistic associations, or links between disparate pieces of information, is fast, and is affectively charged, meaning it usually engages the emotions
* Prospect theory 方案預期理論
* 框架效應(Framing effect):
* 正面框架陳述時風險偏好是規避風險, 負面框架陳述時風險偏好是追求風險
* 規避損失（loss aversion):
* 正面框架陳述時,在確定利得與可能利得擇一,選擇確定利得,故風險偏好是規避風險；負面框架陳述時,在確定損失與可能損失擇一,選擇可能損失,故風險偏好是追求風險
* 短視近利 (myopia):
* 受眼前利得或損失的影響而忽略長期的資產結果
* 正面框架時不會願意冒風險，負面框架時會願意冒風險。

* Common Biases and Errors in Decision
* Overconfidence Bias
* Anchoring Bias 錨定效應
* 在進行決策時，人類傾向於利用片斷資訊（錨點），快速做出決定
* 例子： 假設A店和B店都陳列完全一樣的三千五百日圓混裝餅乾。A店主要是賣一千日圓左右的餅乾為主，所以客人看到三千五百日圓的商品，會覺得「貴」。但是B店大多是賣價格在五千日圓上下的餅乾，看到三千五百日圓的混裝餅乾，會覺得「便宜」。
* Confirmation Bias
* Seek out information that reaffirms past choices, and discount information that contradicts past judgments
* Availability Bias
* 可得性偏差指的是我們更容易被自己所看到或者聽到的東西影響，而不是用統計學知識去思考問題。 在美國發生了9-11事件以後，很多美國人受此影響對飛行產生恐懼，並寧願開車以避免坐飛機
* Escalation of Commitment
* staying with a decision even when there is clear evidence that it’s wrong.
* Likely to occur when individuals view themselves as responsible for the outcome

* Randomness Error
* 誤以為我們能夠預測隨機事件的結果，試圖為隨機事件賦予意義
* Risk Aversion 風險規避
* Prefer a sure gain over a risky positive outcome
* Hindsight Bias 後見偏差
* 當事件發生後, 誤認為我們已準確地預測這個事件，導致我們降低從過去事件學習的能力, 讓我們過度自信.

## Organizational Constraints
* Organizational Constraints
* Performance Evaluation Systems
* Reward Systems
* Formal Regulations
* System-Imposed Time Constraints
* Historical Precedents

## Contrast the Three Ethical Decision Criteria
* Utilitarianism 功利主義
* 認為最正確的行為是將效益達到最大。「效益」就是快樂，傾向得到最大快樂，而傾向避免痛苦就是正確
* focus on rights & justice- protect **whistle blowers**

* Behavioral ethics
* Defn: an area of study that analyzes how people behave when confronted with ethical dilemmas
* Lying

## Three-Stage Model of Creativity